Positive Pacing in Elite Ironman Triathletes

10.4077/CJP.2016.BAE418

Nicole Angehrn；Christoph A. Rüst；Pantelis T. Nikolaidis；Thomas Rosemann；Beat Knechtle

long-distance triathlon ； man ； speed ； woman

The Chinese Journal of Physiology

59卷6期（2016 / 12 / 31）

305 - 314

英文

Pacing is known to influence athletic performance. For the Ironman triathlon program, a positive pacing strategy, i.e., the continuous decrease of speed over time was recommended. By analyzing split times, we assessed the pacing strategies of the top 100 finishers of the cycling part of 13 Ironman races and of the running part of 11 Ironman races taking place in 2014. Furthermore, sex-associated differences in performance and pacing strategies were calculated. We analyzed 7,687 cycling and 11,894 running split times of 1,392 triathletes (1,263 men, 129 women). Changes in speed were assessed using mixed-effects regression analyses. A continuous decrease in speed was observed during cycling in 10/13 races, and during running in 11/11 races. In 6/13 races, women decreased their speed during cycling significantly more than men. The running part showed no significant difference of changes in speed between the sexes. In summary, in the Ironman races evaluated, a positive pacing strategy was adopted in most races. Women were slower than men in 6/13 cycling races, but there was no difference between men and women in the run splits. Women used the same pacing strategy as men.

1. Herbst, L.,Knechtle, B.,Lopez, C.L.,Andonie, J.L.,Fraire, O.S.,Kohler, G.,Rüst, C.A.,Rosemann, T.(2011).Pacing strategy and chance in body composition during a Deca Iron triathlon.Chinese J. Physiol.,54,255-263.
   連結：
2. Rüst, C.A.,Knechtle, B.,Wirth, A.,Knechtle, P.,Ellenrieder, B.,Rosemann, T.,Lepers, R.(2012).Personal best times in an Olympic distance triathlon and a marathon predict an Ironman race time for recreational female triathletes.Chinese J. Physiol.,55,156-162.
   連結：
3. Abbiss, C.R.,Laursen, P.B.(2005).Models to explain fatigue during prolonged endurance cycling.Sports Med.,35,865-898.
4. Abbiss, C.R.,Laursen, P.B.(2008).Describing and understanding pacing strategies during athletic competition.Sports Med.,38,239-252.
5. Abbiss, C.R.,Quod, M.J.,Martin, D.T.,Netto, K.J.,Nosaka, K.,Lee, H.,Surriano, R.,Bishop, D.,Laursen, P.B.(2006).Dynamic pacing strategies during the cycle phase of an Ironman triathlon.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,38,726-734.
6. Andrew, E.,Remco, P.(2012).Pacing in Sport and Exercise: A Psychophysiological Perspective.Nova:Nova Science Pub Inc.
7. Atkinson, G.,Peacock, O.,Law, M.(2007).Acceptability of power variation during a simulated hilly time trial.Int. J. Sports Med.,28,157-163.
8. Beneke, R.,Leithäuser, R.M.,Doppelmayr, M.(2005).Women will do it in the long run.Brit. J. Sports Med.,39,410.
9. Bentley, D.J.,Millet, G.P.,Vleck, V.E.,McNaughton, L.R.(2002).Specific aspects of contemporary triathlon: implications for physiological analysis and performance.Sports Med.,32,345-359.
10. Bernard, T.,Hausswirth, C.,Le Meur, Y.,Bignet, F.,Dorel, S.,Brisswalter, J.(2009).Distribution of power output during the cycling stage of a triathlon world cup.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,41,183-194.
11. Cheuvront, S.N.,Carter, R.,Deruisseau, K.C.,Moffatt, R.J.(2005).Running performance differences between men and women: an update.Sports Med.,35,1017-1024.
12. Coyle, E.F.,Coggan, A.R.(1984).Effectiveness of carbohydrate feeding in delaying fatigue during prolonged exercise.Sports Med.,1,446-458.
13. de Koning, J.J.,Bobbert, M.F.,Foster, C.(1999).Determination of optimal pacing strategy in track cycling with an energy flow model.J. Sci. Med. Sport.,2,266-277.
14. Del Coso, J.,González-Millán, C.,Salinero, J.J.,Abián-Vicén, J.,Soriano, L.,Garde, S.,Pérez-González, B.(2012).Muscle damage and its relationship with muscle fatigue during a Half-Iron triathlon.PLoS One,7,8.
15. Esteve-Lanao, J.,San Juan, A.F.,Earnest, C.P.,Foster, C.,Lucia, A.(2005).How do endurance runners actually train? Relationship with competition performance.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,37,496-504.
16. Etter, F.,Knechtle, B.,Bukowski, A.,Rüst, C.A.,Rosemann, T.,Lepers, R.(2013).Age and gender interactions in short distance triathlon performance.J. Sports Sci.,31,996-1006.
17. Foster, C.,deKoning, J.J.,Hettinga, F.,Lampen, J.,Dodge, C.,Bobbert, M.,Porcari, J.P.(2004).Effect of competitive distance on energy expenditure during simulated competition.Int. J. Sports Med.,25,198-204.
18. Foster, C.,Hoyos, J.,Earnest, C.,Lucia, A.(2005).Regulation of energy expenditure during prolonged athletic competition.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,37,670-675.
19. Foster, C.,Snyder , A.C.,Thompson, N.N.,Green, M.A.,Foley, M.,Schrager, M.(1993).Effect of pacing strategy on cycle time trial performance.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,25,383-388.
20. Gillum, T.L.,Dumke, C.,Ruby, B.(2006).Muscle glycogenolysis and resynthesis in response to a Half Ironman triathlon: a case study.Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,1,408.
21. González-Alonso, J.,Teller, C.,Andersen, S.L.,Jensen, F.B.,Hyldig, T.,Nielsen, B.(1999).Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat.J. Appl. Physiol.,86,1032-1039.
22. Hausswirth, C.,Bigard, A.X.,Berthelot, M.,Thomaïdis, M.,Guezennec, C.Y.(1996).Variability in energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon.Int. J. Sports Med.,17,572-579.
23. Heidenfelder, A.,Rosemann, T.,Rüst, C.A.,Knechtle, B.(2016).Pacing strategies of ultra-cyclists at the 'Race Across America'..Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,11,319-327.
24. Hoffman, M.,Parise, C.A.(2015).Longitudinal assessment of the effect of age and experience on performance in 161-km ultramarathons.Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,10,93-98.
25. Knechtle, B.,Knechtle, P.,Rüst, C.A.,Rosemann, T.(2011).A comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics of Ironman triathletes and Triple Iron ultra-triathletes.J. Sports Sci.,29,1373-1380.
26. Knechtle, B.,Rosemann, T.,Zingg, M.A.,Stiefel, M.,Rüst, C.A.(2015).Pacing strategy in male elite and age group 100 km ultramarathoners.Open Access J. Sports Med.,20,71-80.
27. Knechtle, B.,Wirth, A.,Baumann, B.,Knechtle, P.,Rosemann, T.(2010).Personal best time, percent body fat, and training are differently associated with race time for male and female ironman triathletes.Res. Q. Exerc. Sport.,81,62-68.
28. Knechtle, B.,Wirth, A.,Baumann, B.,Knechtle, P.,Rosemann, T.,Oliver, S.(2010).Differential correlations between anthropometry, training volume, and performance in male and female Ironman triathletes.J. Strength Cond. Res.,42,2785-2793.
29. Knechtle, B.,Zingg, M.A.,Rosemann, T.,Rüst, C.A.(2014).Sex difference in top performers from Ironman to Double Deca Iron ultratriathlon.Open Access J. Sports Med.,26,159-172.
30. Kollarz, C.,Knechtle, B.,Rüst, C.A.,Rosemann T.,Lepers, R.(2013).The age difference in peak performance of backstroke swimming between men and women: a cross sectional data analysis of backstroke and freestyle swimming in elite Swiss swimmers from 2006 to 2010.Adapt. Med.,5,171-180.
31. Lambert, E.V.,St Clair Gibson, A.,Noakes, T.D.(2005).Complex systems model of fatigue: integrative homeostatic control of peripheral physiological systems during exercise in humans.Brit. J. Sports Med.,39,52-62.
32. Le Meur, Y.,Bernard, T.,Dorel, S.,Abbiss C.R.,Honnorat, G.,Brisswalter, J.,Hausswirth, C.(2011).Relationships between triathlon performance and pacing strategy during the run in an international competition.Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,41,1296-1302.
33. Le Meur, Y.,Hausswirth, C.,Dorel, S.,Bignet, F.,Brisswalter, J.,Bernard, T.(2009).Influence of gender on pacing adopted by elite triathletes during a competition.Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.,106,535-545.
34. Lepers, R.(2008).Analysis of Hawaii Ironman performances in elite triathletes from 1981 to 2007.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,40,1828-1834.
35. Lepers, R.,Knechtle, B.,Stapley, P.(2013).Trends in triathlon performance: effects of sex and age.Sports Med.,43,851-863.
36. Lepers, R.,Maffiuletti, N.(2011).Age and gender interactions in ultraendurance performance: insight from the triathlon.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,41,134-139.
37. Lepers, R.,Maffiuletti, N.A.,Rochette, L.,Brugniaux, J.,Millet, G.Y.(2002).Neuromuscular fatigue during a long-duration cycling exercise.J. Appl. Physiol.,92,1487-1493.
38. Lepers, R.,Rüst, C.A.,Stapley, P.,Knechtle, B.(2013).Relative improvements in endurance performance with age: evidence from 25 years of Hawaii Ironman racing.Age,35,953-962.
39. March, D.S.,Vanderburgh, P.M.,Titlebaum, P.J.,Hoops, M.L.(2011).Age, sex and finish time as determinants of pacing in the marathon.J. Strength Cond. Res.,25,386-391.
40. Rauch, H.G.,St Clair Gibson, A.,Lambert, E.V.,Noakes, T.D.(2005).A signalling role for muscle glycogen in the regulation of pace during prolonged exercise.Brit. J. Sports Med.,39,34-38.
41. Rüst, C.A.,Knechtle, B.,Knechtle, P.,Rosemann, T.,Lepers, R.(2012).Age of peak performance in elite male and female ironman triathletes competing in ironman switzerland, a qualifier for the ironman world championship, ironman hawaii, from 1995 to 2011.Open Access J. Sports Med.,2,175-182.
42. Rüst, C.A.,Knechtle, B.,Rosemann, T.,Lepers, R.(2012).Sex difference in race performance and age of peak performance in the ironman triathlon world championship from 1983 to 2012.Extrem. Physiol. Med.,1,15.
43. Rüst, C.A.,Rosemann, T.,Lepers, R.,Knechtle, B.(2014).Changes in transition times in 'Ironman Hawaii' between 1998 and 2013.BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil.,6,37.
44. Seiler, S.(2010).What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes?.Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,5,276-291.
45. St Clair Gibson, A.,Baden, D.A.,Lambert, M.I.,Lambert, E.V.,Harley, Y.X.,Hampson, D.,Russell, V.A.,Noakes, T.D.(2003).The conscious perception of the sensation of fatigue.Sports Med.,33,167-176.
46. St Clair Gibson, A.,Schabort, E.J.,Noakes, T.D.(2001).Reduced neuromuscular activity and force generation during prolonged cycling.Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.,281,187-196.
47. Swain, D.P.(1997).A model for optimizing cycling performance by varying power on hills and in wind.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,29,1104-1108.
48. Tarnopolsky, M.A.,Ruby, B.C.(2001).Sex differences in carbohydrate metabolism.Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care,4,521-526.
49. Thomas, K.,Stone, M.,St Clair Gibson, A.,Thompson, K.,Ansley, L.(2013).The effect of an even-pacing strategy on exercise tolerance in well-trained cyclists.Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.,113,3001-3010.
50. Trubee, N.W.,Vanderburgh, P.M.,Diestelkamp, W.S.,Jackson, K.J.(2014).Effects of heat, stress and sex on pacing in marathon runners.J. Strength Cond. Res.,28,1673-1678.
51. Tucker, R.,Lambert, M.I.,Noakes, T.D.(2006).An analysis of pacing strategies during men's world-record performances in track athletics.Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform.,1,233-245.
52. Vleck, V.E.,Bürgi, A.,Bentley, D.J.(2006).The consequences of swim, cycle and run performance on overall result in elite olympic distance triathlon.Int. J. Sports Med.,27,43-48.
53. Wu, S.S.X.,Peiffer, J.J.,Brisswalter, J.,Lau, W.Y.,Nosaka, K.,Abbiss.,C.(2014).Influence of age and sex on pacing during sprint, Olympic, Half-Ironman and Ironman triathlons: Part B.J. Sci. Cycl.,3,1.
54. Wu, S.S.X.,Peiffer, J.J.,Brisswalter, J.,Nosaka, K.,Lau, W.Y.,Abbiss, C.R.(2015).Pacing strategies during the swim, cycle and run disciplines of Sprint, Olympic and Half-Ironman triathlons.Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.,115,1147-1154.
55. Wu, S.S.X.,Peiffer, J.P.,Brisswalter, J.,Nosaka, K.,Abbiss, C.(2014).Factors influencing pacing in triathlon.Open Access J. Sports Med.,16,223-234.