稻作經濟下的祖先崇拜與科舉文化

Ancestral Worship and Imperial Examination Cultures Under Rice-Based Economy

10.6181/AGEC.201912_(63).0001

馬泰成(Tay-Cheng Ma)

稻作經濟 ； 集體主義 ； 科舉 ； 水利社會 ； 祖先崇拜 ； Rice economy ； Collectivism ； Imperial examinations ； Hydraulic society ； Ancestor worship

農業與經濟

63期（2019 / 12 / 01）

1 - 45

繁體中文

本文發現：宋代的稻作技術進步與水利灌溉需要，是導致華人社會崇拜祖先、重視學歷與考試升學、強調宗族與集體主義等文化的重要原因。因稻作經濟高度仰賴灌溉用水，故農民對內必須以共同祖先為號召，團結同姓宗族，共同興建小型水利設施；對外必須設法讓子弟能夠科舉及第、在朝為官，向中央爭取興建大型水利設施。以上因素交互影響，遂形成了成華人社會的文化特質。

This article proposes that the flourishment of rice economy and the formation of hydraulic society in Sung China are the important factors to shape the cultural patterns of Chinese society, such as ancestor worship, credentialism, grade inflation, lineage conscious, and national collectivism. Since the rice production relies heavily on irrigation water which cannot be accomplished by individual families, Chinese farmers would have to engage in two collective endeavors. First, inside the village, they used descent-ranked lineages and ancestor worship to sustain collective action in small-scale irrigation systems. Second, outside the village, they targeted at success in the Imperial Examinations so as to attain a high-ranking position at central government, which may facilitate their rent-seeking in large-scale public irrigation systems. These in turn lead to the fundamental characteristics of Chinese culture.

1. 朱開宇(2003)。家族與科舉：宋元明休寧程氏的發展。臺大文史哲學報，58，95-140。
   連結：
2. 馬泰成(2015)。從相權的衰落看氣候變遷對中國政治制度的影響。應用經濟論叢，97，211-259。
   連結：
3. Acemoglu, D.,Johnson, S.,Robinson, J.(2002).Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution.Quarterly Journal of Economics,117(4),1231-1294.
4. Bai, Y.,Kung, J.(2011).Climate Shocks and Sino-Nomadic Conflict.Review of Economics and Statistics,93(3),970-981.
5. Bellwood, P.(1995).Early Agriculture, Language History and the Archaeological Record in China and Southeast Asia.Archaeology in Southeast Archaeology in Southeast Asia,Hong Kong:
6. Bellwood, P.(1985).A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins.Asian Perspectives,26(1),107-117.
7. Bettinger, R.,Madsen, D.,Elston, R.(1994).Prehistoric Settlement Categories and Settlement Systems in the Alashan Desert of Inner Mongolia, PRC.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology,13(1),74-101.
8. Boserup, E.(1965).Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure.Chicago:Aldine Publishing Company Press.
9. Chang, Kwang-Chih(1980).Shang Civilization.New Haven:Yale University Press.
10. Diamond, J.(1997).Guns, Germs, and Steel.New York:W. W. Norton Press.
11. Durlauf, S. N.(ed.),Blume, L.E.(ed.)(2010).Macroeconometrics and Time Series Analysis.London:Palgrave Macmillan Press.
12. Eisenstadt, S.(1963).The Political Systems of Empires.New York:The Free Press.
13. Freedman, Maurice(1958).Lineage in Southeastern China.London:Athlone Press.
14. Glaeser, E.,Shleifer, A.(2002).Legal Origins.Quarterly Journal of Economics,117(4),1193-1229.
15. Goetzmann, W.(2016).Money Changes Everything: How Finance Made Civilization Possible.New Jersey:Princeton University Press.
16. Greif, A.,Tabellini, G.(2010).Cultural and Institutional Bifurcation: China and Europe Compared.American Economic Review,100(2),135-140.
17. Greif, A.,Tabellini, G.(2017).The Clan and the Corporation: Sustaining Cooperation in China and Europe.Journal of Comparative Economics,45(1),1-35.
18. Harari, Yuval Noah(2014).Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind.London:Random House Press.
19. Harris, Marvin(1997).Culture, People, Nature.New York:Addison Wesley Press.
20. Hofstede, G.(2001).Cultures Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations.London:Sage Publications Press.
21. Holzman, D.(1998).The Place of Filial Piety in Ancient China.Journal of the American Oriental Society,118(2),185-199.
22. Francis L. K. Hsu (1949), Under the Ancestors’ Shadow: Chinese Culture and Personality, New York: Columbia University Press.
23. Korotayev, A. V.(2003).Unilineal Descent Organization and Deep Christianization: A Cross-Cultural Comparison.Cross-Cultural Research,37(1),133-157.
24. Lattimore, O.(1951).Inner Asian Frontier of China.New York:Oxford University Press.
25. Lavely, W.,Wong, R.(1998).Revising the Malthusian Narrative: The Comparative Study of Population Dynamics in Late Imperial China.Journal of Asian Studies,57(3),714-748.
26. Ma, D.,Rubin, J.(2019).The Paradox of Power: Principal-Agent Problems and Administrative Capacity in Imperial China (and Other Absolutist Regimes).Journal of Comparative Economics,47,277-294.
27. Maddison, Angus(2007).Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run.Paris:OECD Development Centre Press.
28. Marx, K. (1859), Formen, Die Der Kapitalistischen Produktion Vorhergehen, German: Hofenberg Press.
29. Moore, B.(1966).Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World.Boston:Beacon Press.
30. Ni, S.,Van, P. H.(2006).High Corruption Income in Ming and Qing China.Journal of Development Economics,81(2),316-336.
31. North, D.(1990).Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance.New York:Cambridge University Press.
32. North, D.(1981).Structure and Change in Economic History.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
33. Olson, M.(1971).The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and Theory of Groups.Cambridge:Harvard University Press.
34. Perkins, D. H.(1969).Agricultural Development in China, 1368-1968.Chicago:Aldine Press.
35. Piguet, François(2001).Piguet, François (2001), “Even After Good Rains, Afar Pastoralists Remain Vulnerable,” UN Emergencies Unit of Multi-Agency Assessments Missions, Ethiopia: Addis Ababa..
36. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1945), “Religion and Society,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological, 75(1/2), 33-43.
37. Sahlins, M.(2005).Stone Age Economics.Venice:Aldine Press.
38. Smith, A.(2007).The Wealth of Nations.New York:ΜεταLibri Press.
39. Sng, T. H.(2014).Size and Dynastic Decline: The Principal-Agent Problem in Late Imperial China, 1700-1850.Explorations in Economic History,54,107-127.
40. Sng, T. H.,Moriguchi, C.(2014).Asia’s Little Divergence: State Capacity in China and Japan Before 1850.Journal of Economic Growth,19,439-470.
41. Tatje, T.,Hsu, F. L.(1969).Variations and Ancestor Worship Beliefs and Their Relation to Kinship.Southwestern Journal of Anthropology,25,153-172.
42. Underhill, A. P.(1997).Current Issues in Chinese Neolithic Archaeology.Journal of World Prehistory,11(2),103-160.
43. Watson, J.(1982).Chinese Kinship Reconsidered: Anthropological Perspectives on Historical Research.The China Quarterly,92,589-622.
44. Williamson, O. E.(1985).The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting.New York:The Free Press.
45. Wittfogel, K.(1962).Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power.New Heaven:Yale University Press.
46. Wittfogel, K.(1957).Chinese Society: An Historical Survey.Journal of Asian Studies,16(3),343-364.
47. Wu, Y.(1996).Prehistoric Rice Agriculture in the Yellow River Valley.Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association,15,223-224.
48. Yan, W.(1991).China's Earliest Rice Agricultural Remains.Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association,10,118-126.
49. Zhang, Z.(1962).The Income of the Chinese Gentry.Seattle:The University of Washington Press.
50. 內藤湖南(1993)。概括的唐宋時代觀。日本學者研究中國史論著選譯，北京:
51. 王德昭(1984).清代科舉制度研究.北京:中華書局.
52. 余也非(1980)。中國歷代糧食平均畝產量考略。重慶師範學院學報，3，7-20。
53. 余英時(1987).中國思想傳統的現代詮釋.臺北:聯經出版社.
54. 吳松弟(2010)。從人口為主要動力看宋代經濟發展的限度：兼論中西生產力的主要差距。人文雜誌，6，101-111。
55. 李婧(2012)。弱宋之下的科技盛世探源。半畝歷史，5
56. 周道濟(2011).漢唐宰相制度.臺北:大化書局.
57. 金觀濤,劉青峰(1992).興盛與危機􀄙論中國社會超穩定結構.香港:中文大學出版社.
58. 宮崎市定(1993)。東洋的近世。日本學者研究中國史論著選譯，北京:
59. 晏金銘(1982)。隋煬帝開運河的歷史評價。求索，3，97-101。
60. 秦暉(1996)。傳統科舉制的技術、制度與政治哲學涵義􀄙兼論科舉制與現代文官制度的根本差異。戰略與管理，6，60-65。
61. 馬爾薩斯(1967).人口論.臺北:臺灣銀行經濟研究室.
62. 張治安(1983).明代政治制度研究.臺北:聯經出版.
63. 張建民(1994)。試論中國傳統社會晚期的農田水利􀄙以長江流域為中心。中國農史，13(2)，252-268。
64. 梁柏力(2013)。明清中國和同時期的西方，哪一方更專制？哪一方更自由？。明清中國講座四，香港:
65. 許和連,趙德昭(2012)。技術進步與農業剩餘勞動力轉移研究。學術前沿，15，78-85。
66. 陳恩虎(2014).明清時期巢湖流域農業發展研究.合肥:黃山書社.
67. 黃超,王善軍(2012)。宋代族譜序跋所涉家族的地域分佈。大連大學學報，1，40-44。
68. 葛劍雄(2008).統一與分裂.北京:中華書局.
69. 寧可(1958)。宋代的圩田。史學月刊，12，21-25。
70. 熊元斌(1988)。清代浙江地區水利糾紛及其解決的辦法。中國農史，3，48-67。
71. 趙文林,謝淑君(1988).中國人口史.北京:人民出版社.
72. 趙亞凡,劉金崗(2011)。試析宋代農業經濟繁榮的原因。農業考古，4，58-61。
73. 趙岡,陳鍾毅(1982).中國土地制度史.臺北:聯經出版.
74. 趙幹(2012)。明清科舉考試錄取率的考察及啟示。內蒙古農業大學學報：社會科學版，14(4)，307-312。
75. 劉海峰(2010)。科舉政治與科舉學。華中師範大學學報，49(5)，143-155。
76. 錢穆（1942），「論宋代相權」，《金陵、齊魯、華西三大學中國文化研究彙刊》，2，145-150。
77. 錢穆(1996).國史大綱.臺北:商務印書館.
78. 錢穆(2011).中國歷代政治得失.臺北:東大圖書.

1. 馬泰成(2022)。稻作經濟下的創新與尋租。農業經濟叢刊，28(1)，79-109。