「人觀」拼圖：它的概念架構、注意偏向與發展趨勢

Jigsaw Groping of Person Perception: Its Conceptual Framework, Attention Bias, and Developmental Trend

10.6129/CJP.2011.5303.01

王震武(Jenn-Wu Wang)；林烘煜(Hung-Yu Lin)；曹峰銘(Feng-Ming Tsao)；林文瑛(Wen-Ying Lin)

人觀 ； 人際知覺 ； 注意偏向 ； 發展趨勢 ； 概念架構 ； attention bias ； conceptual framework ； developmental trend ； interpersonal perception ； person perception

中華心理學刊

53卷3期（2011 / 09 / 01）

255 - 273

繁體中文

從演化的角度來看，營社群生活的人類，應有其有利於生存的看人方式。本文試圖為建基於演化的基礎人觀及其後續發展做拼圖。研究者推想，人觀的概念架構應以能力與德性為主軸，由此而有的能力觀與德性觀之主要內容為此二者的原態與可塑性，尤以後者為重點。此一概念架構會導致人以親和性、能力及此二者的可塑性為注意的焦點。然而，發展會讓人加強對能力的重視，隨著經驗的增長，人觀也會分化，衍生出針對不同情境的特殊人觀，這些特殊人觀也會引導人的注意，使之在不同的情境下有不同的注意偏向。針對此一人觀拼圖，本文以兩個研究去加以檢驗。利用記憶反映注意的原理，研究一讓小二、小五、高中及大學的參與者聽或讀一個假想的故事，然後測他們對故事中各類訊息的記憶，結果顯示，人看人時確實以親和性及能力為主要焦點，也顯示，隨著年齡的增長，對能力的重視會逐漸凌駕於親和性之上，而演化可能讓我們預設能力與親和性是不可塑的特質。研究二讓四個年齡層的參與者用語言文字描述某個好朋友，結果顯示，「看好朋友」時的特殊人觀與一般人觀所導致的注意偏向不盡相同，德性也成了注意偏向的焦點。更重要的是，發展使得這種特殊人觀隨年齡而轉移，有了迥然不同的面貌。

Humans are by nature social creatures. In evolutionary terms, humans perceive others in ways that potentially facilitate social success. By combining various theories and findings, this article provides a rationale for a new conceptual framework of person perception, which predicts two basic dimensions-competence and morality-along a dimension plasticity concept. Based on this framework, human perception links discriminatory attention to others' competence, warmth, and the plasticity of these two features. On one hand, competence gradually accentuates with age. On the other hand, the accumulation of experience dictates how person perception varies across different social situations as well as differentiates into various person perceptions. Two studies were designed to test this jigsaw model of person perception. Participants in Study I were provided with behavior and trait information about a target person. A memory test was utilized as an attention index to determine whether differences of attention along the manipulated trait dimensions would be subsequently observed among second-graders (N=76), fifth-graders (N=84), high-school students (N=90), and college students (N=89), when participants recalled the information provided. Results supported the prediction that people mainly focus on competence and warmth dimensions, with the former surpassing the latter with age. The results also suggested that children might presuppose that competence and warmth remain unchanged during the early developmental stage. Study II utilized a Twenty Statement Test to explore whether people were attentive to different dimensions when they see their best friend, compared to when they encounter non-specific others. We asked the participants from second-grade (N=77), fifth-grade (N=69), high school (N=86), and college (N=85), to verbally describe their best friend (second-graders), or use twenty sentences to write down their impression of their best friend (elder groups). Results indicated that people focus their attention on their best friend in a different way than they do for general others. Finally, the weight of morality and personality perceived in friends tends to increase with age.

1. 林文瑛(2005)。從德行觀到教養行為─中介歷程假說。中華心理學刊，47，229-248。
   連結：
2. 林文瑛(2003)。教養觀背後的人性觀─以能力觀為例。本土心理學研究，20，253-293。
   連結：
3. 林文瑛(2004)。教師的人性觀與教育觀─以能力觀為例。教育心理學報，35，355-374。
   連結：
4. Abravanel, E.,Sigafoos, A. D.(1984).Exploring the presence of imitation during early infancy.Child Development,55,381-392.
5. Anderson, A. H.(1968).Likableness ratings of 555 personality-trait words.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,9,272-279.
6. Asch, S. E.,Zukier, H.(1984).Thinking about persons.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,46,1230-1240.
7. Bever, T. G.(ed.)(1982).Regressions in mental development: Basic phenomena and theories.Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
8. Brewer, M. B.(1999).The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate?.Journal of Social Issues,55,429-444.
9. Cambon, L.,Djouari, A.,Beauvois, J.-L.(2006).Social judgment norms and social utility: When it is more valuable to be useful than desirable.Swiss Journal of Psychology,65,167-180.
10. Cottrell, C. A.,Neuberg, S. L.(2005).Different emotional reactions to different groups : A sociofunctional threat-based approach to "prejudice".Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,88,770-789.
11. Cottrell, C. A.,Neuberg, S. L.,Li, N. P.(2007).What do people desire in others? A sociofunctional perspective on the importance of different valued characteristics.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,92,208-231.
12. Dannemiller, J. L.,Stephens, B. R.(1988).A critical test of infant pattern preference models.Child Development,59,210-216.
13. Deutsch, M.(1960).The effect of motivational orientation upon trust and suspicion.Human Relations,13,123-139.
14. Devos-Comby, L.,Devos, T.(2001).Social norms, social value and judgments of responsibility.Swiss Journal of Psychology,60,35-46.
15. Dubois, N.,Beauvois, J.-L.(2005).Normativeness and individualism.European Journal of Social Psychology,35,123-146.
16. Dweck, C. S.,Chiu, C.,Hong, Y.(1995).Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A world from two perspectives.Psychological Inquiry,6,267-285.
17. Dweck, C. S.,Hong, Y. Y.,Chiu, C. Y.(1993).Implicit theories: Individual differences in the likelihood and meaning of dispositional inference.Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin,19,644-656.
18. Field, T. M.,Cohen, D.,Garcia, R.,Greenberg, R.(1984).Mother-stranger face discrimination by the new born.Infant Behavior and Development,7,19-25.
19. Fiske, S. T.,Cuddy, A. J. C.,Glick, P.(2006).Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence.Trends in Cognitive Science,11,77-83.
20. Fiske, S. T.,Cuddy, A. J. C.,Glick, P.,Xu, J.(2002).A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82,878-902.
21. Fiske, S. T.,Xu, J.,Cuddy, A. J. C.,Glick, P.(1999).(Dis) respecting versus (dis)liking: Status and interdependence predict ambivalent stereotypes of competence and warmth.Journal of Social Issues,55,473-489.
22. Fontaine, R.(1984).Imitative skills between birth and six months.Infant Behavior and Development,7,323-333.
23. Franzoi, S. L.(2009).Social psychology.Boston:McGraw Hill.
24. Fraser, S.(1972).The orthodox Christian concept of man.Word,7,11-12.
25. Goren, C. C.,Sarty, M.,Wu, Y. K.(1975).Visual following and pattern discrimination of face-like stimuli by newborn infants.Pediatrics,56,544-549.
26. Hamlin, J. K.,Wynn, K.,Bloom, P.(2007).Social evaluation by preverbal infants.Nature,450,557-559.
27. Hartley, W. S.(1970).Manual for the twenty statements problem.Kansas City, MO:Department of Research, Greater Kansas City Mental Health Foundation.
28. Hogrefe, G. J.,Wimmer, H.,Perner, J.(1986).Ignorance versus false belief: A developmental lag in attribution of epistemic states.Child Development,57,567-582.
29. Hong, Y.,Chiu, C.,Dweck, C. S.,Sacks, R.(1997).Implicit theories and evaluative processes in person cognition.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,33,296-323.
30. Keil, F. C.(1989).Concepts, kinds, and cognitive development.Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
31. King, S. B.(1989).Buddha nature and the concept of person.Philosophy East and West,39,151-170.
32. Levy, S. R.,Dweck, C. S.(1998).Trait-versus process-focused social judgment.Social Cognition,16,151-172.
33. Levy, S. R.,Plaks, J. E.,Hong, Y.,Chiu, C.,Dweck, C. S.(2001).Static versus dynamic theories and the perception of groups: Different routs to different destinations.Personality & Social Psychology Review,5,156-168.
34. Maratos, O.(1973).Switzerland,University of Geneva.
35. Maurer, D.,Young, R. E.(1983).Newborn's following of natural and distorted arrangements of facial features.Infant Behavior and Development,6,127-131.
36. McGarty, C.(ed.),Haslam, S. A.(ed.)(1997).The message of social psychology: Perspectives on mind in society.Cambridge, MA:Blackwell.
37. Meins, E.,Fernyhough, C.,Wainwright, R.,Das Gupta, M.,Fradley, E.,Tuckey, M.(2002).Maternal mind-mindedness and attachment security as predictors of theory of mind understanding.Child Development,73,1715-1726.
38. Meltzoff, A. N.,Moore, M. K.(1977).Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.Science,198,75-78.
39. Meltzoff, A. N.,Moore, M. K.(1983).Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures.Child Development,54,702-709.
40. Morton, J.,Johnson, M.(1991).Conspec and conlearn: A two-process theory of infant face recognition.Psychological Review,98,164-181.
41. Osgood, C. E.,Suci, G. J.,Tannenbaum, P. H.(1957).The measurement of meaning.Urbana, IL:University of Illinois Press.
42. Piaget, J.,Cook, M.(Trans.)(1952).The origins of intelligence in children.Madison, CT:International Universities Press.
43. Rakison, D. H.(ed.),Oakes, L. M.(ed.)(2003).Early category and concept development: Making sense of the blooming, buzzing confusion.New York:Oxford University Press.
44. Rips, L. J.(1994).The psychology of proof: Deductive reasoning in human thinking.Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
45. Rokeach, M.(1973).The nature of human values.New York:Free Press.
46. Schwartz, S. H.,Bardi, A.(2001).Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,32,268-290.
47. Spelke, E. S.,Breinlinger, K.,Macomber, J.,Jacobson, K.(1992).Origins of knowledge.Psychological Review,99,605-632.
48. Wellman, H. M.(ed.),Inagaki, K.(ed.)(1997).The emergence of core domains of thought: Children's reasoning about physical, psychological, and biological phenomena.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
49. Zanna, M.(ed.)(1992).Advances in experimental social psychology.Orlando, FL:Academic Press.
50. 王震武、林文瑛(1997)。刑罰與教化─中國人的素樸心理學分析。輔仁學誌：文學院之部，26，181-214。
51. 林文瑛、王震武(1995)。中國父母的教養觀：嚴教觀或打罵觀？。本土心理學研究，3，2-92。

1. 王瀞苡(2022)。臺灣刺繡神明衣之流變與人觀。民俗曲藝，217，67-104。