What to Teach? Conceptualising a Geography Curriculum

教什麼？概念化中學地理課程

10.6234/JGR.201805_(68).0004

Alex Standish

curriculum ； disciplinary knowledge ； epistemology ； social realism ； 課程 ； 學科知識 ； 認識論 ； 社會實在論

地理研究

68期（2018 / 05 / 01）

73 - 88

英文

Starting from the premise that a curriculum must be about knowledge, this article notes the marginalisation of disciplinary knowledge in the Anglo-American school curriculum in recent decades and how contemporary approaches to knowledge (constructivism, instrumentalism and neo-conservatism) are deficient some respect. Instead, the theory of social realism is proposed as a better way to understand the significance of disciplinary knowledge to the education of children and how it can be re-contextualised in the school curriculum. Social realism takes a sociological and epistemological approach to knowledge, moving beyond the positivist/constructivist divide. Geography's epistemology is examined as comprising systematic geography (propositional knowledge), regional/place-based geography (contextual knowledge) and methods (procedural knowledge), and the relations between each explored. Inducting students into geography depends upon a foundational understanding of all three types of knowledge. Therefore, a robust school curriculum must be constructed with all three knowledge types such that students can enter into its conceptual framework and ways of thinking. Finally, the use of knowledge types in geography curriculum and assessment documents in the UK is discussed.

本文從課程必須關乎知識的前提出發，指出近幾十年來北美的中學學校課程中，學科知識被邊緣化的狀況，以及當代建構主義、工具主義和新保守主義對待「知識」在某些部份的不足之處。相對的，本文認為社會實在論的理論更有助於理解學科知識對學校教育的重要性，並有助於學校課程「再脈絡化」的問題。社會實在論同時採取社會學的取徑與知識論的取徑，超越了實證主義／建構主義的鴻溝。本文從地理學包含系統地理（命題的知識）、以區域或地方為本的地理（脈絡的知識）和方法（程序的知識）、以及三者的關係，來檢視地理學的認識論。文章主張引領學生進入地理學，取決於對這三種知識的根本了解。因此，一個健全的學校地理課程必須同時構築在這三種知識類型上，這樣學生才能進入地理的概念架構與思考方式。本文最後也討論了三種知識類型在英國學校課程與評估文件上的應用。

1. Ackerman, E.(1963).Where is the research frontier?.Annual of the Association of American Geographers,53,429-440.
2. Archambault, R. D.(ed.)(1965).Philosophical Analysis and Education.London:Routledge & Kegan Paul.
3. Bernstein, B.(2000).Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research, Critique.Oxford:Rowham and Littlefield.
4. Bernstein, B.(1999).Vertical and horizontal discourse: an essay.British Journal of Sociology of Education,20(2),157-173.
5. Biesta, G.(2005).Against learning: reclaiming a language for education in an age of learning.Nordisk Pedagogik,25,54-66.
6. Biesta, G.(2007).Why "what works" won't work: evidence based practice and the democratic deficit in educational research.Educational Theory,57(1),1-22.
7. Brandom, R.(2000).Articulating Reasons: An Introduction to Inferentialism.Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.
8. Clavel, P.,Thompson, Ian(trans.)(1998).An Introduction to Regional Geography.Oxford:Blackwell.
9. Cresswell, T.(2013).Geographic Thought: A Critical Introduction.Chichester, West Sussex:Wiley-Blackwell.
10. de Blij, H.,Muller, P.(2012).Geography: Realms, Regions and Concepts.New Jersey:Wiley.
11. Department for Education(2010).The Importance of Teaching: The Schools White Paper 2010.London:Department for Education.
12. Department for Education(2014).Assessment Objectives for Modern Foreign Languages, Ancient Languages, Geography and History.London:Department for Education.
13. Eisner, E.(ed.),Vallance, E.(ed.)(1974).Conflicting Conceptions of Curriculum.Berkeley, California:McCutchen.
14. Furedi, F.(2009).Wasted: Why Education Isn't Educating?.London:Continuum.
15. Furedi, F.(2017).What has Happened to the University? A Sociological Exploration of its Infantilisation.London:Routledge.
16. Gardner, D.(ed.),Weeden, P.(ed.),Butt, G.(ed.)(2015).Assessing Progress in your Key Stage 3 Curriculum.Sheffield:Geographical Association.
17. Geographical Association(2014).An Assessment and Progression Framework for Geography.Sheffield:Geographical Association.
18. Geographical Association (2011). Extract from the GA National Curriculum Proposal and Rationale. https://www.geography.org.uk/download/ga%20nc14%20geographical%20knowledge.pdf (accessd 2017/04/20).
19. Gersmehl, P.(2008).Teaching Geography.New York:Guildford Press.
20. Harris Federation(2016).Harris Federation Key Stage 3 Geography.London:Harris Federation.
21. Hartshorne, R. (1939). The Nature of Geography: A Critical Survey of Current Thought in Light of the Past. Lancaster, PA: Association of American Geographers.
22. Hirsch, E.D.(1987).Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know.Random House USA.
23. Holt-Jensen, A.(2009).Geography: History and Concepts – A Student's Guide.London:Sage.
24. Lambert, D.(2017).GeoCapabilities.the Geography Teacher Educators Conference,UK:
25. Lambert, D.,Reiss, M.(2014).The Place of Fieldwork in Geography and Science Qualifications.London:Institute of Education Press.
26. Lauder, H.(ed.),Young, M.(ed.),Daniels, H.(ed.),Balarin, M.(ed.),Lowe, J.(ed.)(2012).Education for a Knowledge Economy? Critical Perspectives.Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan.
27. Massachelein, J. and Simons, M. (2013). In Defence of the School: A Public Issue. http://ppw.kuleuven.be/home/english/research/ecs/les/in-defence-of-the-school/jan-masschelein-maarten-simons-in-defence-of-the.html (accessed 2015/07/20).
28. Maton, K.(ed.),Moore, R.(ed.)(2010).Social Realism, Knowledge and the Sociology of Education.London:Continuum.
29. Maude, A.(2016).What might powerful geographical knowledge look like?.Geography,101(2),70-76.
30. Moore, R.(2007).Sociology of Knowledge and Education.London:Continuum.
31. Muller, J.(2000).Reclaiming Knowledge: Social Theory, Curriculum and Education Policy.London:Routledge.
32. Pring, R.(2013).The Life and Death of Secondary Education for All: Dream or Reality?.London:Routledge.
33. Rata, E.(2012).The Politics of Knowledge in Education.London:Routledge.
34. Slater, F.(1982).Learning Through Geography.London:Heinemann.
35. Solem, M.,Lambert, D.,Tani, S.(2013).Geocapabilities: Toward an International Framework for Researching the Purposes and Values of Geography Education.Review of International Geographical Education,3(3)
36. Standish, A.(2014).Some important distinctions for geography educators.Geography,99(2),83-89.
37. Standish, A.,Sehgal Cuthbert, A.(2017).What Should Schools Teach? Disciplines, Subjects and the Pursuit of Truth.London:University College London/ Institute of Education Press.
38. Ward, S.(1997).Being objective about objectivity: The ironies of standpoint epistemological critiques of science.Sociology,31(4),773-791.
39. Ward, S.(2012).Neoliberalism and the Global Restructuring of Knowledge and Education.New York:Routledge.
40. Wheelahan, L.(2010).Why Knowledge Matters in Curriculum.London:Routledge.
41. Whelan, R.,Lawes, S.,Ledda, M.,McGovern, C.,Patterson, S.,Perks, D.,Standish, A.(2007).The Corruption of the Curriculum.London:CIVTAS.
42. Williams, B.(2010).Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy.Princeton University Press.
43. Winch, C.(2013).Curriculum design and epistemic ascent.Journal of Philosophy of Education,47(1),128-146.
44. Young, M.(2008).Bringing Knowledge Back In: From Social Constructivism to Social Realism in the Sociology of Education.London:Routledge.
45. Young, M.(ed.),Lambert, D.(ed.)(2014).Knowledge and the Future School.London:Bloomsbury.
46. Young, M.,Muller, J.(2016).Curriculum and the Specialization of Knowledge: Studies in the Sociology of Education.London:Routledge.