體育課融入認知與執行功能的概念：提升過重／肥胖兒童學習效果

Integrating the Concept of Cognitive and Executive Function into Physical Education Class: Improving Learning Effects for Overweight/Obese Children

10.6162/SRR.201912_(151).0003

何宜芳(Yi-Fang Ho)；邱逸翔(Yi-Hsiang Chiu)；林子文(Tzu-Wen Lin)

公共衛生 ； 運動量 ； 身體適能 ； public health ； amount of exercise ； physical fitness

大專體育

151期（2019 / 12 / 31）

24 - 32

繁體中文

肥胖是21世紀全球公共衛生議題的焦點，臺灣是肥胖的高風險國家，肥胖對於兒童身體的健康與認知執行功能有諸多負面的影響，體育課可以讓過重／肥胖兒童有規律的運動時間，因此，本文旨在體育課融入認知與執行功能的概念對於過重／肥胖孩童學習效果之影響。在回顧相關文獻，分析結果發現過重／肥胖兒童與體適能較差兒童在閱讀、數學、語言表現皆低於標準值，過重／肥胖會影響學童學習效果與認知表現，兒童時期是關鍵的發展期，應給予適當的刺激將有助於認知功能的發展。肥胖對於認知與執行功能都存在著負面效益，而過重／肥胖兒童具有高體適能者對執行功能則有較佳的表現，另外，體育課融入認知與執行功能元素的課程，將有助於過重／肥胖孩童的學習效果。本文建議增加過重／肥胖孩童運動量或提高身體適能，能提升過重／肥胖兒童在學校的學習效果及課業表現。教師可在體育課安排較具認知挑戰性的課程，例如網球、籃球、足球、競技疊杯等活動，皆可以提升學童認知與執行功能和提升學習效果。

Obesity is a global public health issue in the 21st century, in part because it has many negative effects on children's physical health and cognitive executive functions during a key period of their development. Taiwan is a high-risk country for obesity. The purpose of this article is to motivate change regarding the concept of integrating cognitive and executive functions in physical education classes to improve the learning effects of overweight/obese children. In reviewing relevant literature, the analysis found that children who are overweight/obese and display poor physical fitness also obtain below-average scores in reading, math, and language performance. However, overweight/ obese children with high fitness have better performance on executive functions. Physical education lessons which integrate regular exercise with appropriate stimulation of cognitive and executive function elements will improve the learning effects of overweight/obese children. This article recommends increasing the amount of exercise or physical fitness of overweight/obese children to improve their learning and school performance. Teachers can arrange more cognitively challenging lessons in physical education, such as tennis, basketball, football, competitive cups and other activities, which can improve children's cognitive and executive functions and enhance learning results.

1. Lee, S.-F.,Chii, J.(2016).Efficacy of aerobic exercise program on anthropometric measurements and glucose metabolism in obese adolescents with impaired glucose tolerance: A randomized controlled trial.Physical Education Journal,49(3),263-272.
   連結：
2. 李淑芳, G. S.-F.,錢桂玉, K.-Y.,王秀華, H.-H.(2014)。友善運動環境營造對身體活動與肥胖防治之探討。中華體育季刊，28(4)，287-294。
   連結：
3. Banich, M. T.(2009).Executive function: The search for an integrated account.Current Directions in Psychological Science,18(2),89-94.
4. Bialystok, E.(Ed.),Craik, F. I. M.(Ed.)(2006).Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change.Oxford, UK:Oxford University.
5. Brickenkamp, R.(1981).Test d2: Aufmerksamkeits-Belastungs-Test.Göttingen, Germany:Verlag für Psychologie.
6. Buck, S. M.,Hillman, C. H.,Castelli, D. M.(2008).The relation of aerobic fitness to stroop task performance in preadolescent children.Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,40(1),166-172.
7. Chaddock, L.,Hillman, C. H.,Pontifex, M. B.,Johnson, C. R.,Raine, L. B.,Kramer, A. F.(2012).Childhood aerobic fitness predicts cognitive performance one year later.Journal of Sports Science,30(5),421-430.
8. Colcombe, S. J.,Kramer, A. F.,Erickson, K. I.,Scalf, P.,McAuley, E.,Cohen, N. J.,Elavsky, S.(2004).Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,101(9),3316-3321.
9. Coombs, N. A.,Stamatakis, E.(2015).Associations between objectively assessed and questionnaire-based sedentary behavior with BMI-defined obesity among general population children and adolescents living in England.BMJ Open,5(6),e007172.
10. Crova, C.,Struzzolino, I.,Marchetti, R.,Masci, I.,Vannozzi, G.,Forte, R.,Pesce, C.(2014).Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children.Journal of Sports Sciences,32(3),201-211.
11. Cserjési, R.,Molnár, D.,Luminet, O.,Lénárd, L.(2007).Is there any relationship between obesity and mental flexibility in children?.Appetite,49(3),675-678.
12. Davis, C. L.,Tomporowski, P. D.,Boyle, C. A.,Waller, J. L.,Miller, P. H.,Naglieri, J. A.,Gregoski, M.(2007).Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children’s cognitive functioning: A randomized controlled trial.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,78(5),510-519.
13. Draganski, B.,Gaser, C.,Busch, V.,Schuierer, G.,Bogdahn, U.,May, A.(2004).Changes in grey matter induced by training.Nature,427,311-312.
14. Etnier, J. L.,Chang, Y.-K.(2009).The effect of physical activity on executive function: A brief commentary on definitions, measurement issues, and the current state of the literature.Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,31(4),469-483.
15. Hart, M. A.,Bixby, W. R.(2005).Brain activation patterns during participation in cup stacking.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,76(Suppl. 1),A57.
16. Hillman, C. H.,Buck, S. M.,Themanson, J. R.,Pontifex, M. B.,Castelli, D. M.(2009).Aerobic fitness and cognitive development: Event-related brain potential and task performance indices of executive control in preadolescent children.Developmental Psychology,45(1),114-129.
17. Hillman, C. H.,Erickson, K. I.,Kramer, A. F.(2008).Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition.Nature Reviews Neuroscience,9(1),58-65.
18. Kamijo, K.(2015).Association between childhood obesity and ERP measures of executive control.The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine,4(1),103-106.
19. Kamijo, K.,Pontifex, M. B.,Khan, N. A.,Raine, L. B.,Scudder, M. R.,Drollette, E. S.,Hillman, C. H.(2014).The negative association of childhood obesity to cognitive control of action monitoring.Cerebral Cortex,24(3),654-662.
20. Khan, N. A.,Baym, C. L.,Monti, J. M.,Raine, L. B.,Drollette, E. S.,Scudder, M. R.,Cohen, N. J.(2015).Central adiposity is negatively associated with hippocampal-dependent relational memory among overweight and obese children.The Journal of Pediatrics,166(2),302-308.
21. Krafft, C. E.,Pierce, J. E.,Schwarz, N. F.,Chi, L.,Weinberger, A. L.,Schaeffer, D. J.,McDowell, J. E.(2014).An eight month randomized controlled exercise intervention alters resting state synchrony in overweight children.Neuroscience,256,445-455.
22. Krafft, C. E.,Schaeffer, D. J.,Schwarz, N. F.,Chi, L.,Weinberger, A. L.,Pierce, J. E.,McDowell, J. E.(2014).Improved frontoparietal white matter integrity in overweight children is associated with attendance at an after-school exercise program.Developmental Neuroscience,36,1-9.
23. Krafft, C. E.,Schwarz, N. F.,Chi, L.,Weinberger, A. L.,Schaeffer, D. J.,Pierce, J. E.,McDowell, J. E.(2014).An 8-month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children.Obesity,22(1),232-242.
24. Lees, A.(2003).Science and the major racket sports: A review.Journal of Sports Sciences,21(9),707-732.
25. Lyon, G. R.(Ed.),Krasnegor, N. A.(Ed.)(1996).Attention, memory, and executive function.Baltimore, MD:Paul H. Brookes.
26. Maguire, E. A.,Frith, C. D.,Morris, R. G. M.(1999).The functional neuroanatomy of comprehension and memory: The importance of prior knowledge.Brain,122(10),1839-1850.
27. Milner, B.(1963).Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting: The role of the frontal lobes.Archives of Neurology,9(1),90-100.
28. Murray, S. R.,Udermann, B. E.,Reineke, D. M.,Battista, R. A.(2009).Energy expenditure of sport stacking.Physical Educator,66(4),180.
29. Nader, P. R.,O’Brien, M.,Houts, R.,Bradley, R.,Belsky, J.,Crosnoe, R.,Susman, E. J.(2006).Identifying risk for obesity in early childhood.Pediatrics,118(3),e594-e601.
30. Ng, M.,Fleming, T.,Robinson, M.,Thomson, B.,Graetz, N.,Margono, C.,Gakidou, E.(2014).Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.The Lancet,384(9945),766-781.
31. O’Hare, E. D.,Lu, L. H.,Houston, S. M.,Bookheimer, S. Y.,Sowell, E. R.(2008).Neurodevelopmental changes in verbal working memory load-dependency: An fMRI investigation.Neurolmage,42(4),1678-1685.
32. Peiffer, R.,Darby, L. A.,Fullenkamp, A.,Morgan, A. L.(2015).Effects of acute aerobic exercise on executive function in older women.Journal of Sports Science & Medicine,14(3),574-583.
33. Raven, J. C. (1936). Mental tests used in genetic studies: The performance of related individuals on tests mainly educative and mainly reproductive. (Unpublished master’s thesis, University of London, London, UK).
34. Rivera, S. M.,Reiss, A. L.,Eckert, M. A.,Menon, V.(2005).Developmental changes in mental arithmetic: Evidence for increased functional specialization in the left inferior parietal cortex.Cerebral Cortex,15(11),1779-1790.
35. Roberts, C. K.,Freed, B.,McCarthy, W. J.(2010).Low aerobic fitness and obesity are associated with lower standardized test scores in children.The Journal of Pediatrics,156(5),711-718.
36. Sallis, J. F.(2010).We do not have to sacrifice children’s health to achieve academic goals.The Journal of Pediatrics,156(5),696-697.
37. Schaeffer, D. J.,Krafft, C. E.,Schwarz, N. F.,Chi, L.,Rodrigue, A. L.,Pierce, J. E.,McDowell, J. E.(2014).An 8-month exercise intervention alters frontotemporal white matter integrity in overweight children.Psychophysiology,51(8),728-733.
38. Sibley, B. A.,Etnier, J. L.(2003).The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis.Pediatric Exercise Science,15(3),243-256.
39. Smith, E.,Hay, P.,Campbell, L.,Trollor, J. N.(2011).A review of the association between obesity and cognitive function across the lifespan: Implications for novel approaches to prevention and treatment.Obesity Reviews,12(9),740-755.
40. Todendi, P. F.,Klinger, E. I.,Ferreira, M. B.,Reuter, C. P.,Burgos, M. S.,Possuelo, L. G.,Valim, A. R. M.(2015).Association of IL-6 and CRP gene polymorphisms with obesity and metabolic disorders in children and adolescents.Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências,87(2),915-924.
41. Tsai, C.-L.(2009).The effectiveness of exercise intervention on inhibitory control in children with developmental coordination disorder: Using a visuospatial attention paradigm as a model.Research in Developmental Disabilities,30(6),1268-1280.
42. Vazou, S.,Pesce, C.,Lakes, K.,Smiley-Oyen, A.(2019).More than one road leads to Rome: A narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth.International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology,17(2),153-178.
43. Weinberg、 R. S.,Gould, D.,簡曜輝（譯）, I.-H.(trans.)(2002).競技與健身運動心理學.臺北市=Taipei, Taiwan:臺灣運動心理學會=Society for Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan.
44. Wu, C.-T.,Pontifex, M. B.,Raine, L. B.,Chaddock, L.,Voss, M. W.,Kramer, A. F.,Hillman, C. H.(2011).Aerobic fitness and response variability in preadolescent children performing a cognitive control task.Neuropsychology,25(3),333-341.