褐地社區修復式環境正義的興起、實作、與條件－美國南卡州斯巴坦堡社區重建政策之個案分析

The Initiation, Practice, and Prerequisites for Pursuing Restorative Environmental Justice in Brownfield Community: A Case Study on Redevelopment Policy in Spartanburg, South Carolina

10.30409/JPA.201809_(55).0003

李翠萍(Tsuey-Ping Lee)

修復式環境正義 ； 褐地重建政策 ； 環境治理 ； 環境政治 ； 社區再生 ； restorative environmental justice ； brownfield redevelopment policy ； environmental governance ； environmental politics ； community revitalization

公共行政學報

55期（2018 / 09 / 01）

73 - 108

繁體中文

本研究透過深度訪談、歷史文件資料分析、與在地觀察，從美國南卡羅來納州斯巴坦堡一個典型環境不正義社區的重建過程，剖析修復概念如何在主流的報應正義與賠償正義中興起並付諸實作，藉此探討在環境不正義社區中實踐修復概念的支持條件。本文基於修復式環境正義的定義發展三個觀察修復概念實作的面向，分別是受害者的傷害與需求如何被重視、利害關係者導正社區中環境不正義的責任感如何啟發、以及利害關係者的溝通參與如何被強調。研究發現，在集體訴訟求償條件不佳的情況下，修復式環境正義觀點成為社區在集體訴訟與社區福祉之間的權衡選擇。然而修復導向的觀點之所以能於斯巴坦堡褐地社區逐步實踐，有著社會、政治、與法律面的支持條件。社會面的條件包括在地非營利組織與意見領袖、基督教信仰、與非裔傳統鄰里互助文化；政治面的條件包括社區政治參與的提升、網絡連結與口碑效應、與迫使公部門積極參與的策略；法律面的支持條件則是集體訴訟求償條件不佳與利於褐地重建的法規訂定。

This study intends to investigate the initiation, practice and prerequisites for pursuing restorative environmental justice in an environmental injustice community located in Spartanburg, South Carolina through in-depth interview, observation, and historical document analysis. Based on the definition of restorative environmental justice, three dimensions, that is, emphasizing the harms and needs of victims, cultivating stakeholders' sense of responsibility on correcting environmental injustice, and facilitating stakeholder communication and participation, were utilized to analyze the practice of restoration in brownfield community. This study found that, under the circumstances unfavorable to law suit and indemnity request, restorative environmental justice is chosen by the community as a result of considering the trade-off between benefits from class action and integrated community well-being. Social, political, and legal prerequisites provided strong support for pursuing restorative environmental justice in the community. The social factors include a community-based organization that embraces restorative perspective and is trusted by the residents, Christianity and traditional African culture. The political factors include an increase in political participation, network partnership and word-of-mouth effect, and strategy for motivating participatory willingness of the government. Legal factors include unfavorable conditions for class action and indemnity request, and brownfield redevelopment-oriented law-making.

1. Barksdale, H. (1998, March 24). EPA, DHEC to meet citizens. The Times Upstate, 1A, 8A.
2. Basemore, G.,Walgrave, L.(1999).Restorative juvenile justice: In search of fundamentals and an outline for systematic reform.Restorative juvenile justice: Repairing the harm of youth crime,Monsey, NY:
3. Black & Veatch Special Projects Corp(2001).Black & Veatch Special Projects Corp (2001). Community involvement plan: Arkwright dump site. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 4 under EPA Work Assignment No. 018-CRCR-04QW. Document exhibited in Spartanburg County Public Library, Spartanburg, South Carolina..
4. Braithwaite, J.(2004).Restorative justice and de-professionalization.The Good Society,13(1),28-31.
5. Braithwaite, J.(2000).Shame and criminal justice.Canadian Journal of Criminology,42(3),281-298.
6. Conley, L. (1998, May 27). City, Westgate team up for July 4th fireworks: Council reassures Arkwright residents about dump cleanup. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/19980527/citywestgate-team-up-for-july-4th-fireworks-council-reassures-arkwright-residents-about-dump-cleanup.
7. Conley, L. (2000, October 19). Fighting to save his community: Harold Mitchell gets award for efforts to clean up Arkwright. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20001019/fighting-to-save-his-community-harold-mitchell-gets-award-for-efforts-to-clean-up-arkwright
8. Conley, L. (2002b, July 12). Arkwright revitalization could get new boost. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20020712/arkwright-revitalization-could-get-new-boost
9. Conley, L. (1999a, June 15). City vows to clean up Arkwright landfill. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/19990615/city-vows-to-clean-up-arkwright-landfill
10. Conley, L. (2002a, June 28). Harold Mitchell's work to clean up neighborhood recognized by environmental protection agency. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20020628/harold-mitchell39s-work-to-clean-up-neighborhood--recognized-by-environmental-protection-agency-this-is-second-award-for-mitchell
11. Conley, L. (1999b, July 13). Demolition of plant begins: Project to dismantle IMC will take about six months. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/19990713/demolition-of-plant-begins-project-to-dismantle-imc-will-take-about-six-months
12. Conley, L. (2005, August 7). Regenesis revitalizing communities. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20050807/regenesis-revitalizing-communities
13. Conrad, S. M.(2015).Denton, Texas,University of North Texas.
14. Conrad, S. M.(2011).A restorative environmental justice for prison e-waste recycling.Peace Review,23(3),348-355.
15. Davies, L. L.(1999).Working toward a common goal? Three case studies of brownfields redevelopment in environmental justice communities.Stanford Environmental Law Journal,18,285-329.
16. Depositions and ..., INC.(2002).Depositions and …, INC. (2002). Report of 8/6/2002 proposed plan meeting on cleanup of Arkwright dump site. Meeting Verbatim of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Arkwright Community Open Public Forum, Proposed Plan Meeting on Cleanup of Arkwright Dump Site. Held at Community Baptist Church, Spartanburg, South Carolina on August 6, 2002. Document exhibited in Spartanburg County Public Library, Spartanburg, South Carolina..
17. Dorsey, J. W.(2009).Restorative environmental justice: Assessing brownfield initiatives, revitalization, and community economic development in St. Petersburg, Florida.Environmental Justice,2(2),69-78.
18. Dull, M.,Wernstedt, K.(2010).Land recycling, community revitalization, and distributive politics: An analysis of EPA brownfields program support.Policy Studies Journal,38(1),119-141.
19. Ellerbusch, F.(2006).Brownfields: Risk, property, and community value.Local Environment,11(5),559-575.
20. Esquivel, P. (2015, April 12). 15 years after 'Erin Brockovich,' town still fearful of polluted water. Los Angeles Times, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-hinkley-20150413-story.html
21. Fields, T. (2014). A dream realized: Community driven revitalization in Spartanburg. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://blog.epa.gov/blog/2014/08/a-dream-realized-community-driven-revitalization-in-spartanburg/
22. Figueroa, R. M.,Waitt, G.(2010).Climb: Restorative justice, environmental heritage, and the moral terrains of Uluṟu-kata Tjuṯa national park.Environmental Philosophy,7(2),135-164.
23. Gavrielides, T.(2011).Restorative practices: From the early societies to the 1970s.Internet Journal of Criminology
24. Greenberg, M.,Lewis, M. J.(2000).Brownfields redevelopment, preferences and public involvement: A case study of an ethnically mixed neighborhood.Urban Studies,37(13),2501-2514.
25. Gute, D. M.,Taylor, M.(2006).Revitalizing neighbourhoods through sustainable brownfields redevelopment: Principles put into practice in bridgeport, CT.Local Environment,11(5),537-558.
26. Harton, O. N.(2008).Indiana's brownfields initiatives: A vehicle for pursing environmental justice or just blowing smoke.Indiana Law Review,41,215-244.
27. Henderson, G. (1998, March 23). Old, abandoned garbage site creating stink in Arkwright. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/19980323/old-abandoned-garbage-site-creating-stink-in-arkwright-dumping-back
28. Hill, B.(2014).Environmental justice: Legal theory and practice.Washington, DC:Environmental Law Institute.
29. Kaiman, C. M.(2016).Environmental justice and community-based reparations.Seattle University Law Review,39(4),1327-1374.
30. Langford, C. (2013). Texas refinery neighbors sue BP for billions. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.courthousenews.com/texas-refinery-neighbors-sue-bp-for-billions
31. Larsen, J. J. (2014). Restorative justice in the Australian criminal justice system. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/rpp/rpp127.pdf
32. Lee, T.P.,Yang, Y.,Tung, C.H.(2009).Social welfare needs of residents in polluted areas: A case of dioxin pollution in southern Taiwan.Public Administration and Development,29(3),239-249.
33. Leonard, R. E. (2007, June 15). Story of pollution in Arkwright, Forest Park now on DVD. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/article/20070615/NEWS/706150334?p=1&tc=pg&tc=ar
34. Letang, S. J.(2017).Community participation in brownfields redevelopment decision-making under the microscope: An analysis of three processes in passaic county, new jersey.Psychosociological Issues in Human Resource Management,5(2),51-95.
35. Marshall, T. F.(1999).Restorative justice: An overview.
36. Mitchell, H.(1998).Mitchell, H. (1998, May 7). [Letter to Lill Mood, Community Liaison, Environmental Quality Control, DHEC]. Copy in possession of Spartanburg County Public Library.
37. Moore, J. W.(2008).How sports can benefit communities burdened by brownfields.Virginia Sports & Entertainment Law Journal,8(1),1-32.
38. Mulliger, A. (2016, July 10). Solar farm to bring power to Spartanburg neighborhoods: 500 homes in Forest Park, Arkwright could benefit. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20160710/solar-farm-to-bring-power-to-spartanburg-neighborhoods
39. NBC News (2008, May 9). Most oil companies in MTBE lawsuit settle. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.nbcnews.com/id/24541226/ns/us_news-environment/t/most-oil-companies-mtbe-lawsuits-settle/
40. Norman, D. (2001, April 11). Lawsuit takes aim at IMC over Arkwright site. Spartanburg Herald-Journal, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.goupstate.com/news/20010411/ltfc62lawsuit-takes-aim-at-imc
41. Otsuka, N.,Dixon, T.,Abe, H. A.(2013).Stock measurement and regeneration policy approaches to 'hardcore' brownfield sites: England and Japan compared.Land Use Policy,33,36-41.
42. Patel, R. (2016). Clean energy in a revitalized Spartanburg. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2016/08/31/clean-energy-revitalized-spartanburg
43. Pippin, A. M.(2009).Community involvement in brownfield redevelopment makes cents: A study of brownfield redevelopment initiatives in the United States and central and eastern Europe.Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law,37(3),589-619.
44. Robinson, C.(2008).Restorative environmental justice.The Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association,San Diego, California:
45. Rush, E. P.(2002).Rush, E. P. (2002). Cooperative agreement work plan: Arkwright dump superfund redevelopment initiative (proposed amendment may 27). Spartanburg County, SC: Community & Economic Development Department.
46. Schrey, H. H.,Walz, H. H.,Whitehouse, W. A.(1955).The biblical doctrine of justice and law.London:SCM Press.
47. Sharp, K. (2000, April 15). “Erin Brockovich”: The real story. Salon, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.salon.com/2000/04/14/sharp/
48. Siikamäki, J.,Wernstedt, K.(2008).Turning brownfields into greenspaces: Examining incentives and barriers to revitalization.Journal of health politics, policy and law,33(3),559-593.
49. Smith, M. L.(1998).Smith, M. L. (1998). Report of 4/27/1998 Arkwright/forest park community meeting. Spartanburg County, SC: Karla S. Burnett & Associates Freelance Reporting Services.
50. Solitare, L.(2005).Prerequisite conditions for meaningful participation in brownfields redevelopment.Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,48(6),917-953.
51. Solitare, L.,Lowrie, K.(2012).Increasing the capacity of community development corporations for brownfield redevelopment: An inside-out approach.Local Environment,17(4),461-479.
52. South Coast Air Quality Management District (2005). AQMD and BP settle refinery emission violations for $25 million in civil penalties, $6 million in past fees, and $50 million for community and clean air projects. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.aqmd.gov/home/library/public-information/2005-news-archives/bp-refinery-violations-settlement-2005
53. Taylor, D. (2009, November 11). BP faces damages claim over pipeline through Colombian farmland. The Gaurdian, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/11/colombia-farmers-sue-bp-pipeline
54. The Upstate Advocate (2003). The Regenesis project: How one man is bringing a community back to life in Spartanburg. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://upstateforever.org/pdfs/old/newsletters/June%20'03%20Newsletter/AReGenJun_03.htm
55. US EPA (2010). Superfund fact sheet: International mineral & chemical (IMC) site removal update. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/10763354.pdf
56. US EPA(2002).US EPA (2002a). Arkwright dump site: Remedial investigation/feasibility study update fact sheet no. 4. Document exhibited in Spartanburg County Public Library, Spartanburg, South Carolina and obtained on July 9-11, 2016..
57. US EPA(2008).EPA's environmental justice collaborative problem-solving model.
58. US EPA (1999). BP exploration [Alaska] pleads guilty to hazardous substance crime will pay $22 million, establish nationwide environmental management system. Retrieved August 27, 2017, from https://archive.epa.gov/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/5d61856989631e20852567f6004bbbff.html
59. US EPA(2002).US EPA (2002b). Superfund proposed plan fact sheet Arkwright dump site. Document exhibited in Spartanburg County Public Library, Spartanburg, South Carolina and obtained on July 9-11, 2016.
60. US EPA Office of Policy, Economics, and Innovation(2003).,未出版
61. Van Ness, D. W.,Strong, K. H.(2010).Restoring justice: An introduction to restorative justice.New Providence, NJ:Matthew Bender & Company.
62. Verkaik, R. (2006, July 21). BP pays out millions to Colombian farmers. The Independent, Retrieved August 27, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/bp-pays-out-millions-to-colombian-farmers-6094738.html
63. Vissage, J. L.,Rush, E. P.(2001).Cooperative agreement work plan: Arkwright community brownfields assessment demonstration pilot.Spartanburg County, SC:Community & Economic Development Department.
64. Vissage, J. L.,Rush, E. P.(2001).Vissage, J. L., & E. P. Rush (2001b). Cooperative agreement work plan: Arkwright dump superfund redevelopment initiative (revised November 16). Spartanburg County, SC: Community & Economic Development Department..
65. Weisman, T.(2012).Restorative environmental justice as a way of life: Learning from Ubuntu.Dialogue AND Universalism,3(1),92-109.
66. Wheatley, M.(1997).Social and cultural impacts of mercury pollution on aboriginal peoples in Canada.Water, Air & Soil Pollution,97(1-2),85-90.
67. Zehr, H.(2002).The little book of restorative justice.Intercourse, PA:Good Books.
68. 李翠萍(2012)。褐地重建政策分析─社區能力的觀點。台北=Taipei:五南=Wunan Publishing。

1. 李翠萍(2021)。工業污染區住民之正義觀：後勁與臺西個案分析。政治科學論叢，89，39-87。
2. (2023)。環境法案如何進入政策議程？如何獲得立法通過？《溫室氣體減量及管理法》的個案分析（2006～2015）。政治學報，76，111-144。