Muslims in Modem Southeast Asia: Radicalism in Historical Perspectives

現代東南亞的穆斯林：歷史觀點中的極端主義

10.7039/TJSAST.200510.0003

伊克 A. 曼索諾(Iik A. Mansurnoor)

少數民族的聲音 ； 使用武力 ； 政權轉移 ； 宗教原則－兼－意識形態 ； 伊斯蘭教論述與運動 ； Minority voice ； The use of force ； The take-over of power ； Religious principle-cum-ideology ； Islamic discourse and movement

台灣東南亞學刊

2卷2期（2005 / 10 / 01）

3 - 54

英文

在大眾媒體大肆報導「伊斯蘭恐怖主義」的今天，穆斯林堅稱他們之中支持恐怖主義的激進派只是少數的極端份子。筆者在本文中將檢視穆斯林涉入有關使用暴力的爭論之歷史事件。首先我將重新檢視穆斯林學者間有關十九世紀「聖戰」(jihad)的傳播的辯論，特別是在荷蘭東印度殖民地。大部分的學者主張穆斯林可以藉由宗教來啟動聖戰以結束歐洲人所施加的不公和殖民對待；然而，有的學者則認為當今的情境並無助於開展聖戰，因此主張在伊斯蘭上聖戰是違法的。 在20世紀的後半葉，東南亞很多地方的穆斯林或伊斯蘭教運動開展出許許多多的武裝鬥爭，以對抗當地的中央政府。這些鬥爭並不必然都是針對非穆斯林的統治者，有的使用暴力作為竭力主張他們議程的運動甚至對於政府更替或政權轉移興趣缺缺，他們反而會堅持透過具體的行動來促使宗教原則的執行，包括使用暴力。 除了比較歷史現象和時期外，本文也旨在說明那些由不同的伊斯蘭教運動所挑起和擁有的意識形態論辯和知識的面相。

Amid the overwhelming mass media coverage of ”Islamic terrorism” today, Muslims insist that radicals from among their fold who endorse terrorism are minorities and extremists. In this article, I shall examine some historical episodes where Muslims are involved in argument about the use of violence. First of all I shall re-examine the debates among Muslim scholars on the propagation of ”holy war” (”jihad”) during the 19th century, especially in the Dutch East Indies territories. The majority maintain that holy war can be religiously launched in order to end injustice and colonization meted out by the Europeans. Some other scholars, however, argue that the contemporary conditions were not conducive to launch holy war, and thus it is Islamic ally unlawful. During the second half of the 20th century, armed struggles were launched by Muslims or Islamic movements in many different parts of Southeast Asia against the central governments. These struggles are not necessarily directed against non-Muslim rulers. Still other movements, using violence as a means of pressing their agenda, are less interested in changing government or taking over power. They rather insist on the implementation of religious principles through concrete actions, including the use of violence. In addition to comparing historical phenomena and periods, this article aims to delineate the ideological arguments and intellectual facets raised by and found in these diverse Islamic movements.

1. The Nation
2. `Abd al-Ra`ûf al-Sinkilî(1891).Mir`ât al-Tullâb fî Tashîl Ma`rifat al-Ahkâm al-Shar`îya lil-Malik al-Wahhâb.Mecca:al-Matba`a al-Miriya.
3. `Uthman ibn `Aqil of Betawi(1913).Manhaj al-Istiqamah fi al-Din bi al-Salama.Steenbrink.
4. A. Samad Ahmad (ed)(1979).Sulalatus Salatin (Sejarah Melayu).Kuala Lumpur:Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
5. Abd al-Rashîd al-Banjari(1928).Kitab Perukunan.Cairo:Matba`at Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi.
6. Abuza, Zachary(2002).Tentacles of Terror: Al Qaeda`s Southeast Asian Network.Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs,24(2),427-465.
7. Declaration of Independence of Acheh-Sumatra
8. Ahmad Daudy,A.R. Hasan (ed.)(1987).Warisan Inteiektuai Islam Indonesia: Telaah atas Karya-Karya Kiasik.Bandung:Mizan.
9. Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid(2001).Sufi Undercurrents in Islamic Revivalism: Traditional, Post-Traditional and Modem Images of Islamic Activism in Malaysia.Islamic Quarterly,45(2-3),119-37,177-97.
10. Ahmad ibn Muhammad Zayn al-Fatânî,Shaghir Abdullah (ed.)(1990).Farîdat al-Farâ`id fi`Ilm al-`Aqâ`id. Wan Mohd.Kuala Lumpur:Khazanah Fathaniyah.
11. Ahmad ibn Muhammad Zayn al-Fatânî,Shaghir Abdullah (ed.)(1996).Al-Fatâwâ al-Fatânîya (3) Wan Mohd.Kuala Lumpur:Khazanah Fathaniyah.
12. Ahmad Omar Chapakia(2000).Politik Thai dan Masyarakat Islam di Selatan Thailand.Alor Setar:Pustaka Darussalam.
13. Ahmad Rifa`i(1871).Abyân al-Hawâ`ij.Manuscript, copied by his disciples and circulated widely in north Central Java.
14. Ahmad Rifa`i(1871).Tashrîh al-Îmân.Manuscript, copied by his disciples and circulated widely in north Central Java.
15. Al Chaidar (ed)(1999).Pemikiran Politik Proklamator Negara Islam Indonesia S.M Karisoewirjo.Jakarta:Darul Falah.
16. Al-Attas, S.M.N.(1966).Monograph of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.Singapore:The Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (MBRAS).
17. al-Raniri, Nur al-Din(1658).Tibyân fi Ma`rfat al-A dyân.Hyderabad:Da`irat al-Ma`arif al-`Uthmaniya.
18. al-Raniri, Nur al-Din(1634).al-Ŝirât al-Mustaqîm.Cairo:Dar Ihya` al-Kutub al-`Arabiya.
19. Amiq(1998).Two Fatwas on Jihad against the Dutch Colonization in Indonesia: A Prosopographical Approach to the Study of Fatwa.Studia Islamika,5(3),77-124.
20. Angel Rabasa,Peter Chalk(ed)(1997).The Davao Consensus: A Panacea for the Muslim Insurgency in Mindanao.Terrorism and Political Violence,9(2),79-98.
21. Indonesia`s Transformation and the Stability of Southeast Asia
22. An-Na`im, Abdullahi Ahmed(1990).Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law.Syracuse, N.Y.:Syracuse University Press.
23. Anthony Reid (ed.)(1993).Southeast Asia in the Early Modern Era: Trade, Power, and Belief.Ithaca and London:Cornell University Press.
24. Anthony Reid (ed.)(1971).The Blood of the People: Revolution and the End of Traditional Rule in Northern Sumatra.Kuala Lumpur:Oxford University Press.
25. Barton, Greg,Grayson Lloyd,S. Smith (ed)(2001).Indonesia Today: Challenges of History.Singapore:ISEAS.
26. Benda, Harry J.,P.M. Holt (edited)(1970).Cambridge History of Islam 2A.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
27. Brown, C.C.(1970).Sejarah Melayu 'Malay Annals.'.Kuala Lumpur:MBRAS.
28. Carey, Peter BR.(1981).Monograph of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.Kuala Lumpur:MBRAS.
29. Terrorism and Development: Using Social and Economic Development to Inhibit a Resurgence of Terrorism
30. Da`ud ibn `Abdullah al-Fatânî. (n.d.)(1838).Furû` al-Masâ`il wa-Usûl al-Wasâ`il.Cairo:Dar Ihya` al-Kutub al-`Arabiya.
31. Daudy, Abmad,A.R. Hasan (ed).(1987).Warisan Intelektual Islam Indonesia: Telaah atas Karya-Karya Kiasik.Bandung:Mizan.
32. Deliar Noer,M.B. Hooker(ed.)(1983).Islam in South-East Asia.Leiden:E.J. Brill.
33. Dobbin, Christine(1983).Islamic Revivalism in a Changing Peasant Economy, Central Sumatra, 1784-1847.London and Malmö:Curzon Press.
34. Drewes, G.W.J.(1976).Further Data Concerning `Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani.BKJ 132.
35. Esposito, John L.(2002).Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
36. Esposito, John L.(1984).Islam and Politics.Syracuse, N.Y.:Syracuse University Press.
37. Feith, Herbert(1957).Interim Reports Series, Modern Indonesian Project. Southeast Asia Program.Ithaca New York:Cornell University.
38. Fuller, Graham E.(2003).The Future of Political Islam.New York:Palgrave.
39. Gowing, Peter(1975).Southeast Asian Affairs.Singapore:ISEAS.
40. Gowing, Peter(1979).Muslims Filipinos: Heritage and Horizon.Quezon City:New Day.
41. Gunaratna, Rohan(2002).Paper written for the 2002 IIAS Annual Lecture.DeBalie, Amsterdam:
42. Gunn, Geoffrey C.(1986).Radical Islam in Southeast Asia: Rhetoric and Reality in the Middle Eastern Connection.Journal of Contemporary Asia,16(1),30-54.
43. Crescent International
44. Hefner, Robert(1990).The Political Economy of Mountain Java: An Interpretive History.Berkeley:University of California Press.
45. Southeast Asia/Brussles
46. Jakarta/Brussels
47. Banda Aceh. Jakarta/Brussels
48. Paper presented at The First Inter-Dialogue Conference on Southern Thailand
49. Iik A. Mansurnoor(2001).Traditional Islam, Its Proponents, and Challenges: Some Examples from Southeast Asia.International Journal Ihya` Ulum al-Din,2(1),45-69.
50. Iik A. Mansurnoor(2004).Radialization of Islamic Discourse among Muslim in Southeast Asia: An Historical Reinterpretation.Kultur: The Indonesian Journal for Muslim Cultures,3(1),63-104.
51. Ileto, Reynaldo,Nicholas Tarling, (ed.)(1992).Cambridhe History of Southeast Asia.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
52. Jackson, Karl D.(1980).Traditional Authority, Islam, and Rebellion: A Study of Indonesian Political Behavior.Berkeley:University of California Press.
53. Johns, Anthony,R. Israeli,A. Johns, (eds)(1984).Islam in Southeast Asia.Jerusalem:Magnes Press.
54. Jones, Leon(1997).Working Paper 104, Monash Asia Institute.Clayton:Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University.
55. Kathirithamby-Wells, J.(1970).Ahmad Shah Ibn Iskandar and the Late 17th Centuty 'Holy War' in Indonesia.JMBRAS,43,48-72.
56. Kell, Tim(1995).Cornell Modern Indonesia Project.Ithaca:Cornell University.
57. Lintner, Bertil(2002).Terrorism, Think Local: In Review Book of Rohan Gunaratna`s Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror.FEER,December
58. Far Eastern Economic Review
59. McVey, Ruth,Vani S.,Lim Joo-Jock, (eds.)(1984).Armed Separatism in Southeast Asia.Singapore:ISEAS.
60. McVey, Ruth,Vani S.,Lim Joo-Jock, (eds.),Andrew D.W. Forbes (ed.)(1989).The Muslims of Thailand, volume 2: Politics of the Malay-Speaking South.Bihar:Centre for Southeast Asian Studies.
61. Morris, Eric,Audrey R. Kahin (edited)(1985).Regional Dynamics of the Indonesian Revolution: Unity from Diversity.Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press.
62. Muhammad Arshad ibn `Abd Allah al-Banjari(1812).Sabîl al-Muhtadîn li al-Tafaqquh fi Amr al-Dîn.Cairo:Dar Ihya` al-Kutub al-`Arabiya.
63. Muhammad ibn Ismâ`î1 Dâ`ud al-Fatânî(1859).Matia` al-Badrayn wa-Majma` al-Bahrayn.Cairo:Dar Ihya` al-Kutub al-`Arabiya.
64. Muhammad Nûr ibn Muhammad ibn Ismâ`îl al-Fatânî(1931).Kifâyat al-Muhtadî pada Menerangkan Cahaya Sullam al-Mubtadî.Pattani:Muhammad al-Nahdi.
65. Nazaruddin Sjamsuddin(1985).The Republican Revolt: A Study of the Acehnese Rebellion.Singapore:ISEAS.
66. Omar Farouk,Vani S.,Lim Joo-Jock (eds.)(1984).Armed Separatism in Southeast Asia.Singapore:ISEAS.
67. Rahman, Fazlur,P. Stoddard (eds.)(1981).Change and the Muslim World.New York:Syracuse University Press.
68. Rathmell, Andrew(1995).Book Reviews: Olivier Roy`s The Failure of Political Islam.Terrorism and Political Violence,7,187-191.
69. Richardson, James T.(2001).Minority Religions and the Context of Violence: A Conflict/Interactionist Perspective.Terrorism and Political Violence,13(1),103-126.
70. Ricklefs, Merle C.(1974).Jogjakarta under Sultan Mangkubumi, 1749-1792: A History of the Division of Java.London and Oxford:Oxford University Press.
71. Ricklefs, Merle C.,Grayson Lloyd,S. Smith (ed.)(2001).Indonesia Today: Challenges of History.Singapore:ISEAS.
72. Roff, William R.(1980).The Origins of Malay Nationalism.Kuala Lumpur:University of Malaya Press.
73. Ronald May,Daljit Singh,A.L. Smith (ed)(2002).Southeast Asian Affairs 2001.Singapore:ISEAS.
74. Roy, Olivier(1994).The Failure of Political Islam.Tr. London:I.B. Tauris.
75. A presented at the symposium on Islam in Southeast Asia and China: Regional Faithliness and Faultlines in the Global Ummah
76. Sartono Kartodirdjo,Claire Holt(1972).Culture and Politics in Indonesia.Ithaca and London:Cornell Universtity Press.
77. Schrieke, B.J.O.,S. Poerbakawatja (Translated)(1973).Pergolakan Agama di Sumatra: Sebuah Sumbangan Bibliografi.Jakarta:Bhratara.
78. Serajul Islam, Syed(1998).The Islamic Independence Movements in Patani of Thailand and Mindanao of the Philippines.Asian Survey,38(5),441-456.
79. Nida`ul Islam
80. Siegel, James(1979).Shadow and Sound: The Historical Thought of A Sumatran People.Chicago:The University of Chicago Press.
81. Sivan, Emmanuel(1990).Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics.New Haven:Yale University Press.
82. Snouck Hurgronje(1996).C. Aceh; Rakyat dan Adat Istiadatnya.tr. Jakarta and Leiden:INIS.
83. Steenbrink, Karel A.(1984).Beberapa Aspek tentang Islam di Indonesia Abad ke-19.Jakarta:Bulan Bintang.
84. Suhrke, A.(1997).Loyalist and Separatist: The Muslims in Southern Thailand.Asian Survey,17(3),237-250.
85. Surin Pitsuwan(1985).Islam and Malay Nationalism: A Case Study of the Malay-Muslims of Southern Thailand.Bangkok:Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University.
86. Taufik Abdullah(1966).Adat and Islam: An Examination of Conflict in Minangkabau.Indonesia,2,1-24.
87. Teuku Iskandar,C.D. Grijn,S.O. Robson, (eds.)(1986).Cultural Contact and Textual Interpretation.Dordrecht:Foris.
88. Thomas, Ladd(1975).Political Violence in the Muslim Provinces of Southern Thailand.Singapore:ISEAS.
89. Turner, Mark(1995).Terrorism and Secession in the Southern Philippines: The Rise of Abu Sayyaf.Contemporary Southeast Asia,17(1)
90. Vakily, Abdollah(1997).Sufism, Power Politics, and Reform: Al-Rânîrî`s Opposition to Hamzah Fansûrî`s Teaching Recpnsidered.Studia Islamika,4(1),113-135.
91. Van Bruinessen, Martin(2001).International Colloquium L`islam politique à l`aube du XXIème siècle.Tehran:
92. Van Bruinessen, Martin(1995).Kitab Kuning: Pesantren dan Tarekat; Tradisi-Tradisi Islam di Indonesia.Bandung:Mizan.
93. Van Dijk, C.(1981).Rebellion under the Banner of Islam: Darul Islam in Indonesia.The Hague:M. Nijhoff.
94. Virginia M. Hooker(ed.)(1991).Tuhfat al-Nafis: Sejarah Melayu Islam.tr. Kuala Lumpur:Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
95. Voll, John,John Esposito (ed.)(1983).Voices of Resurgent Islam.New York:Oxford University Press.
96. Voorhoeve, P.,T. Iskandar,M. Dune (ed.)(1994).Catalogue of Acehnese Manuscripts in the Library of Leiden University and Other Collections outside Aceh.Leiden:Legatum Warnerianum.
97. Wan Kadir Che Man(1990).Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malaya of Southern Thailand.Singapore:Oxford University Press.
98. Zainuddin, H. M.,Ismail Suny, (ed)(1980).Bunga Rampai tentang Aceh.Jakarta:Bhratara Karya Aksara.
99. Zeidan, David(2001).The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle.Middle East Review of international Affairs,5(4),26-53.