語言使用者處理語句時運用的各式表徵

Multiple Representations in Grammatical Processing

徐東伯(Dong-Bo Hsu)

淺層表徵 ； 深層表徵 ； 夠用就好表徵 ； 不完整表徵 ； 共享表徵 ； deep representation ； good-enough representation ； incomplete representation ； shallow representation ； shared representation

華語文教學研究

12卷4期（2015 / 12 / 01）

45 - 75

繁體中文

Clahsen and Felser (2006)認為母語學習者（含孩童）與外語學習者運用的語句表徵的差別在於，外語學習者僅能運用詞彙、語意為基礎的句法表徵，而母語學習者則能夠運用純粹句法運算的深層表徵。本文引用文獻中語句處理的實徵研究反駁這樣的觀點。首先，成人的母語人士並非總是運用深層表徵，他們常常也會運用夠用就好(good enough)的表徵，因此成人母語人士的語句處理表現與外語學習者的語句處理表現並非如Clahsen and Felser所宣稱的有基本差異。另一方面，孩童的語句表徵因為受限於成熟因素的影響，並非一開始就具備完整的成人般的深層表徵。再者，有研究證據顯示成人母語人士與外語學習者能夠運用共享的表徵進行跨語言的語句處理。由此可知，語言使用者（母語成人、母語孩童、外語學習者）使用的語句表徵並非只有深層與淺層表徵的不同而已。研究者同時也得要考慮這些語言使用者也會運用著足夠好表徵、部分表徵以及共享表徵等各式表徵進行語句處理。文末介紹如何以句法啟動(structural priming)此一實驗派典，探華語為第二語言習得者可能運用的各式語句表徵。

This paper begins with a well-accepted view between first and second language acquisition that native speakers including children’s syntactic representation employed in comprehension is fundamentally different from non-native adult learners’ (Clahsen and Felser 2006). The main claim proposed by C & F indicates that native speakers employ syntactically-based representation for comprehension whereas non-native adult speakers make best use of semantic-pragmatic strategies for comprehension. Nonetheless, the study presents evidence from language comprehension to showcase that native speakers do not always employ deep and syntactically-based representation but also employ good-enough representations, and children employ partially abstract representation in comprehension whereas non-native adult speakers can employ native-like deep representation of syntax which is shared between their first and second languages. Evidence challenges C & F’s claim. In the end, the study laid out the studies of structural priming to shed light on the future research on the representation in sentence processing.

1. Hsu, Dong-Bo,Lin, Yowyu(2014).Development of the abstraction of second language learners' syntactic representation: evidence from structural priming in different levels of proficiency.Journal of Chinese Language Teaching,11(3),1-31.
   連結：
2. Abbot-Smith, Kirsten,Lieven, Elena,Tomasello, Michael(2008).Graded representations in the acquisition of English and German transitive constructions.Cognitive Development,23,48-66.
3. Akhtar, Nameera(1999).Acquiring basic word order: evidence for data-driven learning of syntactic structure.Journal of Child Language,26,339-356.
4. Barton, Stephen,Sanford, Anthony J.(1993).A case of anomaly detection: shallow semantic processing and cohesion establishment.Memory Cognition,21,477-487.
5. Bencini, Giulia M. L.,Valian, Virginia V.(2008).Abstract sentence representations in 3-year-olds: evidence from language production and comprehension.Journal of Memory and Language,59,97-113.
6. Bernolet, Sarah,Hartsuiker, Robert J.,Pickering, Martin J.(2007).Shared syntactic representations in bilinguals: evidence for the role of word-order repetition.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition,33,931-949.
7. Bley-Vroman, Robert(2009).The evolving context for the fundamental difference hypothesis.Studies in Second Language Acquisition,31,175-198.
8. Bley-Vroman, Robert(1990).The logical problem of foreign language learning.Linguistic Analysis,20,3-49.
9. Bock, J. Kathryn,Griffin, Zenzi M.(2000).The persistence of structural priming: transient activation or implicit learning?.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,129,177-192.
10. Bock, J. Kathryn,Loebell, Helga(1989).Closed-class immanence in sentence production.Cognition,31,163-186.
11. Bock, J. Kathryn,Loebell, Helga(1990).Framing sentences.Cognition,35,1-39.
12. Carreiras, Manuel,Clifton, Charles(1999).Another word on parsing relative clauses: eyetracking evidence from Spanish and English.Memory and Cognition,27,826-833.
13. Chan, Angela,Lieven, Elena,Tomasello, Michael(2009).Children's understanding of the agent-patient relations in the transitive construction: cross-linguistic comparisons between Cantonese, German and English.Cognitive Linguistics,20,267-300.
14. Chang, Franklin,Bock, Kathryn,Goldberg, Adele(2003).Can thematic roles leave traces of their places?.Cognition,90,29-49.
15. Christianson, Kiel,Hollingworth, Andrew,Halliwell, John F.,Ferreira, Fernanda(2001).Thematic roles assigned along the garden path linger.Cognitive Psychology,42,368-407.
16. Clahsen, Harald,Felser, Claudia(2006).Grammatical processing in language learners.Applied Psycholinguistics,27,3-42.
17. Cleland, Alexandra A.,Pickering, Martin J.(2003).The use of lexical and syntactic information in language production: evidence from the priming of noun-phrase structure.Journal of Memory and Language,49,214-230.
18. Cupples, Linda(2002).The structural characteristics and on-line comprehension of experiencer-verb sentences.Language and Cognitive Processes,17,125-162.
19. Dittmar, Miriam,Abbot-Smith, Kirsten,Lieven, Elena,Tomasello, Michael(2008).Young German children's early syntactic competence: a preferential looking study.Developmental Science,11,575-582.
20. Dittmar, Miriam,Abbot-Smith, Kirsten,Lieven, Elena,Tomasello, Michael(2008).German children's comprehension of word order and case marking in causative sentences.Child Development,79,1152-1167.
21. Dittmar, Miriam,Abbot-Smith, Kirsten,Lieven, Elena,Tomasello, Michael(2011).Children aged 2; 1 use transitive syntax to make a semantic role interpretation in a pointing task.Journal of Child Language,38,1109-1123.
22. Dussias, Paola E.,Sagarra, Nuria(2007).The effect of exposure on syntactic parsing in Spanish-English bilinguals.Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,10,101-116.
23. Fernandez, Eva(2003).Bilingual Sentence Processing.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
24. Ferreira, Fernanda(2003).The misinterpretation of noncanonical sentences.Cognitive Psychology,47,164-203.
25. Fisher, Cynthia(1996).Structural limits on verb mapping: the role of analogy in children's interpretations of sentences.Cognitive Psychology,81,41-81.
26. Gertner, Yael,Fisher, Cynthia(2012).Predicted errors in children's early sentence comprehension.Cognition,124,85-94.
27. Gertner, Yael,Fisher, Cynthia,Eisengart, Julie(2006).Learning words and rules: abstract knowledge of word order in early sentence comprehension.Psychological Science,17,684-691.
28. Gibson, Edward(1998).Linguistic complexity: locality and syntactic dependencies.Cognition,68,1-76.
29. Gillette, Jane,Gleitman, Henry,Gleitman, Lila,Lederer, Anne(1999).Human simulations of vocabulary learning.Cognition,73,135-176.
30. Hartsuiker, Robert J.,Pickering, Martin J.,Veltkamp, Eline(2004).Is syntax separate or shared between languages? cross-linguistic syntactic priming in Spanish-English bilinguals.Psychological Science,15,409-414.
31. Hsu, Dong-Bo(2014).Mandarin-speaking three-year-olds' demonstration of productive knowledge of syntax: evidence from syntactic productivity and structural priming with the SVO-ba alternation.Journal of Child Language,41,1115-1146.
32. Hsu, Dong-Bo(2014).Structural priming as learning: evidence from Mandarinlearning five-year-olds.Language Acquisition: A Journal of Developmental Linguistics,21,156-172.
33. Huttenlocher, Janellen,Vasilyeva, Marina,Shimpi, Priya(2004).Syntactic priming in young children.Journal of Memory and Language,50,182-195.
34. Juffs, Alan,Harrington, Michael(1995).Parsing effects in second language sentence processing.Studies in Second Language Acquisition,17,483-516.
35. Kathryn, Bock, J.(1986).Syntactic persistence in language production.Cognitive Psychology,18,355-387.
36. Loebell, Helga,Bock, Kathryn(2003).Structural priming across languages.Linguistics,41,791-824.
37. Marinis, Theodore,Roberts, Leah,Felser, Claudia,Clahsen, Harald(2005).Gaps in second language sentence processing.Studies in Second Language Acquisition,27,53-78.
38. Naigles, Letitia R.(2002).Form is easy, meaning is hard: resolving a paradox in early child language.Cognition,86,157-199.
39. Noble, Claire,Rowland, Caroline,Pine, Julian(2011).Comprehension of argument structure and semantic roles: evidence from English-learning children and the forced-choice pointing paradigm.Cognitive Science,35,963-982.
40. Omaki, Akira,Schulz, Barbara(2011).Filler-gap dependencies and island constraints in second-language sentence processing.Studies in Second Language Acquisition,33,563-588.
41. Papadopoulou, Despina,Clahsen, Harald(2003).Parsing strategies in L1 and L2 sentence processing: a study of relative clause attachment in Greek.Studies in Second Language Acquisition,24,501-528.
42. Pickering, Martin J.,Branigan, Holly P.(1998).The representation of verbs: evidence from syntactic priming in language production.Journal of Memory and Language,39,633-651.
43. Pinker, Steven(1999).Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language.New York:Basic Books.
44. Roberts, Leah,Marinis, Theodore,Felser, Claudia,Clahsen, Harald(2007).Antecedent priming at trace positions in children's sentence processing.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research,36,175-188.
45. Rowland, Caroline F.,Chang, Frankin,Ambridge, Ben,Pine, Julian M.,Lieven, Elena(2012).The development of abstract syntax: evidence from structural priming and the lexical boost.Cognition,125,49-63.
46. Saffran, Jenny,Aslin, Richard N.,Newport, Elissa L.(1996).Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants.Science,274,1926-1928.
47. Savage, Ceric,Lieven, Elena,Theakston, Anna,Tomasello, Michael(2003).Testing the abstractness of children's linguistics representations: lexical and structural priming of syntactic constructions in young children.Developmental Sciences,6,557-567.
48. Schoonbaer, Sofie,Hartsuiker, Robert,Pickering, Martin J.(2007).The representation of lexical and syntactic information in bilinguals: evidence from syntactic priming.Journal of Memory and Language,56,153-171.
49. Shimpi, Priya M.,Gamez, Perla B.,Huttenlocher, Janellen,Vasilyeva, Marina(2007).Syntactic priming in 3- and 4-year-old children: evidence for abstract representations of transitive and dative forms.Developmental Psychology,43,1334-1346.
50. Snedeker, Jesse,Trueswell, John(2004).The developing constraints on parsing decisions: the role of lexical-biases and referential scenes in child and adult sentence processing.Cognitive Psychology,49,238-299.
51. Sun, Chao Fen,Givon, Talmy(1985).On the so-called SOV word order in Mandarin Chinese: a quantified text study and its implications.Language,61,329-351.
52. Thothathiri, Malathi,Snedeker, Jesse(2008).Syntactic priming during language comprehension in 3- and 4-year-old children.Journal of Memory and Language,58,88-213.
53. Tomasello, Michael(2003).Constructing a Language: A Usage-based Theory of Language Acquisition.Cambridge:Harvard University Press.
54. Tomasello, Michael(2000).Do young children have adult syntactic competence?.Cognition,74,209-253.
55. Trueswell, John,Sekerina, Irina,Hill, Nicole M.,Logrip, Marian L.(1999).The kindergarden-path effect: studying on-line sentence processing in children.Cognition,73,89-134.
56. Yuan, Sylvia,Fisher, Cynthia,Snedeker, Jesse(2012).Counting the nouns: simple structural cues to verb meaning.Child Development,83,1382-1399.
57. Zou, Ke(1995).Los Angeles,University of Southern California.