女性主義觀點下的國際法－以海洋法為例

International Law from the Perspective of Feminism--- The Law of the Sea as An Example

陳貞如(Chen-Ju Chen)

聯合國海洋法公約 ； 國際海洋法法庭 ； 性別主流化 ； 性別平等 ； 婦女賦權 ； UN Convention on the Law of the Sea ； International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ； Gender Mainstreaming ； Gender Equality ； Women's Empowerment

台灣國際法學刊

16卷2期（2020 / 07 / 01）

25 - 57

繁體中文

近年來，「性別與海洋」相關議題在聯合國架構中，漸被關注。事實上，從女性主義角度出發研究國際法已有蓬勃發展，其主要觀察到在國際法之架構、形成過程與研究方法中，女性被邊緣化，其生活與經驗往往被忽略。故而國際社會回應性別問題之程度亦有限，在規範面，不同領域對於性別問題回應之程度不同，縱然有部分發展，但仍屬少數，甚至仍視女性為被害者或是僅具軟法性質。在制度面，雖然聯合國倡議「性別主流化」，其組織之女性高階人員比例有長足成長，但技術性領域仍有所限制。在爭端解決程序面，在佔多數的男性法官主導絕大多數爭端解決機制的狀況下，無從判斷女性法官參與對於制度的影響程度如何，但性別失衡的結果不免影響相關程序與結果。在海洋法領域，其失衡之程度，更甚於其他國際法領域。《聯合國海洋法公約》縱有人權或人道考量，但仍非針對性別的意識與回應。近年來，雖有海洋環境或漁業資源管理領域發展出顧及性別之文件或規範，但仍相當有限。甚至公約所建立之機制，全然無性別考量，更少有女性參與者。在當代海洋法面對眾多新挑戰的狀況下，透過女性主義角度的切入，能提供跳脫傳統侷限之機會，透過多元價值與途徑，促進規範的再進步、再發展。

Recently, issues about gender and the sea have gained more attention from the United Nations (UN). In international legal research, more vigorously developed has been how feminism has approached international law. Such developments have found that international law's evolution, structure, and studies have altogether often marginalized the female's role, characteristics, and living experiences as a whole. Thus, international society has-to a very limited extent-adequately responded to gender-related issues. In lawmaking, international law's different sub-sectors have-at different levels-responded to gender-related issues. Only few of such responses have taken the premise of ＂gender＂ into account. As some of such responses have merely viewed females as victims and/or formed a soft law status. In administrative institutions, though gender mainstreaming has been proposed in the UN and the number of female high-ranking personnel has increased, all of such progresses have not been evident in the technology sector. And in dispute settlement procedures, most of the presiding judges are male. Thus, it is difficult to discern how female judges might impact the aforesaid systems and procedures. Also, more doubts could persist as strong gender imbalances might impact such procedures and their produced results. In the law of the sea field, these gender imbalance issues are worse than those of other international law fields. Namely as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS Convention) does not explicitly respond to and/or make sense of gender-related issues. Yet, the LOS Convention does sometimes take human rights and/or humanity-related issues into account. From a very limited scope and in the realms of both fisheries management and maritime environmental protection, only some regulations are developed in tandem with gender-related concerns. More concerning is that the LOS Convention's established mechanisms lack both the adequate sense of gender and number of female participants. As the contemporary law of the sea faces various new challenges, the feminist approaches allow for ampler opportunities to both diverge from certain traditions and promote further regulatory developments in the near future.

1. 廖福特(2011)。消除對婦女一切形式歧視公約任擇議定書之實踐與婦女權利保障。臺灣國際法季刊，8(2)，7-51。
   連結：
2. 謝若蘭(2008)。聯合國婦女會議與人權。臺灣國際研究季刊，4(2)，53-79。
   連結：
3. 1995 年聯合國第 4 次世界婦女大會在北京召開，以性別平等與婦女賦權為主題，並公布《北京宣言暨行動綱領》（Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action）。第 193(c) 段。
4. 《公民與政治權利公約》第 3 條和第 25 條
5. Maritime Labour Convention, adopted in 23 February 2006, entered into force on 20 August 2013, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
6. Paris Agreement to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, opened for signature 22 April 2016, entered into force 4 November 2016, FCCC/CP/2015/L.9 [hereinafter referred to as the Paris Agreement], Article 7(5)
7. Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States, 26 December 1933, 165 I.N.T.S. 19. 第1條規定
8. 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted on 10 December 1982, entered into force on 16 November 1994, 21 I.L.M. 1261, 1833 U.N.T.S. 3 (1982) [hereinafter the LOS Convention]. 前言第 2 段。附件 2 第 2 條。
9. 「永續發展目標」第 13.B 點。
10. UN World Oceans Day, Gender and the Ocean, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
11. IV. General Recommendations Adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Eleventh Session (1992), General Recommendation No. 19: Violence against Women, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
12. 《國際刑事法院羅馬規約》第 7.（1）.7 條、第 7.（1）.8 條、第 7.（2）.3 條、第 7.（2）.6 條、第 7.（3）條、第 8.（2）.2.（22）條，和第 8.（2）.5.（6）條。
13. IV. General Recommendations Adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Eighth Session (1989), General Recommendation No. 12: Violence against Women, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
14. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, adopted on 17 July 1998, entered into force on 01 July 2002, 2187 U.N.T.C. 90, 37 I.L.M. 1002, 1998.
15. (2017).性別主流化：臺灣經驗與國際比較.
16. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, opened for signature 18 December 1978, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13, 19 I.L.M. 33 (1980), entered into force on 3 September 1981. [hereinafter referred to as the CEDAW]., 第 8 條。第 6 條。
17. Prosecutor v. Jean Paul Akayesu, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Case No. I.C.T.R.-96-4-T
18. (2017).Report of the Secretary-General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea, 06 September 2017, UN. Doc. A/72/70/ADD.1, para. 21..
19. International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, adopted on 01 November 1974, entered into force on 25 May 1980, 1184 U.N.T.S. 278.
20. 「聯合國秘書長報告——提高婦女在聯合國系統的地位」（Report of the Secretary-General-Improvement in the Status of Women in the United Nations System）歷年報告可見於聯合國婦女署網頁，UN Women, Reports and Monitoring, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
21. UN World Oceans Day, Home, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
22. Brooks, Rosa E.(2002).Feminism and International Law: An Opportunity for Transformation.Yale J.L. & Feminism,14,345-346-352+354.
23. Byrnes, Andres(1997).Human Rights Instruments Relating Specifically to Women, with Particular Emphasis on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.Advancing the Human Rights of Women: Using International Human Rights Standards in Domestic Litigation,London:
24. Byrnes, Andrew,Connors, Jane(1996).Enforcing the Human Rights of Women: A Complaints Procedure for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women?.Brooklyn J. Int＇l L.,21(3),679-767.
25. CEDAW Committee(2017).CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 35 on Gender-Based Violence against Women, Updating General Recommendation No. 19, 26 July 2017, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/GC/35, para. 1. , para. 29..
26. Charlesworth, Hilary,Chinkin, Christine,Wright, Shelley(1991).Feminist Approaches to International Law.Am. J. Int'l L.,85,613.
27. Chen, Chen-Ju(2010).Fisheries Subsidies under International Law.
28. Engle, Karen(2005).Feminism and Its (Dis)Contents: Criminalizing Wartime Rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina.Am. J. Int'L L,99,778-804.
29. Engle, Karen(2018).Feminist Governance and International Law: From Liberal to Carceral Feminism.Governance Feminism: Notes from the Field
30. FAO, Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication, paras. 8.1-8.4.
31. FAO, FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, available at : (last visited on 01 June 2020) [hereinafter the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries].
32. FAO, Promoting Gender Equality and Women＇s Empowerment in Fisheries and Aquaculture, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
33. FAO, Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
34. Goettsche-Wanli, Gabriele(2019).Gender and the Law of the Sea: A Global Perspective.Gender and the Law of the Sea
35. Grey, Rosemary(2019).Prosecuting Sexual Gender-Based Crimes at the International Criminal Court.
36. Grossman, Nienke(2016).Shattering the Glass Ceiling in International Adjudication.Va. J. Int'l L,56(2),213-224.
37. Gupta, Kiran Soni.Gender and International Environmental Negotiations-How Far and How Much More?.Papers on International Environmental Negotiations,15
38. Heathcote, Gina V.(2019).Feminism and the Law of the Sea: A Preliminary Inquiry.Gender and the Law of the Sea
39. Hodson, Loveday(2019).Mermaids and Utopias: the High Seas as Feminist Space.Gender and the Law of the Sea
40. Hodson, Loveday(ed.),Lavers,Troy(ed.)(2019).Feminist Judgments in International Law.
41. ICC, ICC Judicial Division, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
42. IMO, Supporting Gender Equality, Empowering Women- World Maritime Day 2019, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
43. IMO, International Day of the Seafarer 2019: Get on Board with Gender Equality, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
44. International Court of Justice, All Members, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
45. International Court of Justice, Current Members, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
46. IOC-UNESCO,Vlades, Luis(ed.)(2017).Global Ocean Science Report-The Current Status of Ocean Science around the World.UNNESCO.
47. ISA, the Secretary-General, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
48. ITF, Women Seafarers, available at: (last visited on 31 May 2020).
49. ITLOS, Dispute concerning delimitation of the maritime boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh/Myanmar), available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020), paras. 238 & 240.
50. ITLOS, Members, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
51. Kamarck, Kristy N.(2015).US Congressional Research Service ReportUS Congressional Research Service Report,未出版
52. Kitada, Momoko(2019).Advancing ｀Good Practices＇ that Promote Gender Equality in the Maritime Sector.Gender and the Law of the Sea
53. Tommy T.B. Koh, A Constitution for the Oceans (1982), available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020)
54. Kumar, S.,Rose, C(2014).A Study of Lawyers Appearing before the International Court of Justice, 1999-2012.Eur. J Int'l L,25,893-904.
55. Lentisco, Angela,Lee, Robert Ulric(2015).A Review of Women＇s Access to Fish in Small-Scale Fisheries.
56. Mallia, Patricia,Testa, David,Borgese, Elisabeth Mann(2019).Gender and the Law of the Sea.Gender and the Law of the Sea
57. Morrow, Karen(2017).Integrating Gender Issues into the Global Climate Change Regime.Understanding Climate Change through Gender Relations
58. Mountis, Elene G.(1996).Cultural Relativity and Universalism: Reevaluating Gender Rights in a Multicultural Context.Penn St. Int'l L. Rev.,15,113.
59. Murphy, Vanessa(2019).Woman at War at Sea, How International Humanitarian Law Provides for the Protection of Female Members of the Armed Forces at Sea.Gender and the Law of the Sea
60. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights(2000).Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No. 28, Article 3 (The Equality of Rights between Men and Women, HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), 29 March 2000, para. 29..
61. Ollino, Alice(2019).Feminism, Nature and the Post-Human: toward a Critical Analysis of the International Law of the Sea Governing Marine Living Resources Management.Gender and the Law of the Sea
62. Oral, Nilufer(2019).Climate Change, Oceans and Gender.Gender and the Law of the Sea
63. O'Rourke, Catherine(2017).Feminist Strategy in International Law: Understanding Its Legal, Normative and Political Dimensions.Eur. J. Int'l. L.,28,1019-1023.
64. Otto, Dianne(2009).The Exile of Inclusion: Reflections on Gender Issues in International Law over the Last Decade.Melb. J. Int.l L,10,1-16.
65. Papanicolopulu, Irini(2019).Introduction: Gender and the Law of the Sea- Oceans Apart?.Gender and the Law of the Sea
66. Papanicolopulu, Irini(ed.)(2019).Gender and the Law of the Sea.
67. Perera, Suvendrini(2013).Oceanic Corpo-graphies, Refugee Bodies and the Making and Unmaking of Water.Feminist Review,102,64.
68. Rimmer, S(ed.),Ogg, K(ed.)(2019).Research Handbook on Feminist Engagement with International Law.
69. Rothwell, Donald R,Stephens, Tim(2010).The International Law of the Sea.
70. Rothwell, Donald(ed.),Elferink, Alex G Oude(ed.),Scott, Karen N(ed.),Stephens, Tim(ed.)(2015).The Oxford Handbook of the Law of the Sea 1.
71. Scovazzi, Tullio(2019).Some Doubts on the Gender Implications on the Law of the Sea.Gender and the Law of the Sea
72. Francis P. Sempa, The Geopolitical Vision of Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Diplomat, 30 December 2014, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
73. Tickner, Ann(1992).Gender in International Relations.
74. UN(2015).The World's Women 2015, Trends and Statistics.
75. UN, UNSC Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security, UN SCOR, UN Doc. S/RES/1325 (31 October 2000).
76. UN, UNSC Resolution 1889 (2009) on Women and Peace and Security, UN SCOR, UN Doc. S/RES/1889 (5 October 2009).
77. UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), Members of the Commission, available at: (last visited 01 June 2020)
78. UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, Proclaimed by General Assembly Resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
79. UN Office on Drugs and Crime=UNODC(2016).Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2016.
80. UN Permanent Missions, System-wide Strategy on Gender Parity, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
81. UN Women, SDG 5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
82. UNEP, Agenda 21, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
83. UNGA(1972).UNGA, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN Doc. A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, June 5-16, 1972 [hereinafter referred to as Stockholm Declaration]..
84. UNGA, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 24 December 2917, UN Doc. A/RES/72/249, 19 January 2018, para. 5.
85. UNGA(2019).UNGA, Report of the Secretary-General-Improvement in the Status of Women in the United Nations System, UN Doc. A/74/220, 23 July 2019, paras. 14.15. , para. 24. , para. 23..
86. UNGA, Women in Power, 12 March 2019, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
87. UNGA(2017).UNGA, Our Ocean, Our Future: Call for Action, UN Doc. A/71/L.74, 30 June 2017, para. 9.
88. UNGA(1992).UNGA, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, UN Doc. A/Conf.151/26 (Vol.I), August 12, 1992 [hereinafter referred to as Rio Declaration]..
89. UNGA(1998).UNGA, Report of the Secretary-General-Improvement in the Status of Women in the United Nations System, UN Doc. A/53/376, 14 September 1998, p. 14..
90. UNHCR, Emergencies: Europe Situation, available at: (last visited on 31 May 2020).
91. United Nations Environment Programme and Gender and Water Alliance, Gender Mainstreaming in the Management of the Marine and Coastal Ecosystems, UN Environment Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 212, 2019, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
92. United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Woman, available at: (last visited on 01 June 2020).
93. van Lieshout, Mary(1994).International Lobbying for Change, A Northern View of South-North Linking.NorthSouth Co-operation
94. Vidas, Davor(2011).The Anthropocene and the International Law of the Sea.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,369,99.
95. Wolfrum, Rüdiger(ed.)(2015).Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law.
96. World Conference on Human Rights(1993).World Conference on Human Rights, Note by the Secretariat, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/23, 12 July 1993, para. 18..
97. 王淑娟(2016)。女性人力進用之檢討與精進。海軍學術雙月刊，50(4)，70-74。
98. 包宗和(2009).國際關係辭典.
99. 瓦列里(2011).俄羅斯地緣政治.
100. 伍維婷，聯合國重要議題系列論壇（一）：性別與安全，https://www.iwomenweb.org.tw/Upload/UserFiles/files/ 性別與安全論壇會議實錄 .pdf（最後點閱日期：2020 年 06 月 01 日）。
101. 季國興(2008).中國的海洋安全和海域管轄.
102. 張國城(2013).東亞海權論.
103. 張國書(2001)。簡介「暴力侵害婦女」此概念在國際人權規範中的內涵。新世紀智庫論壇，14，66-74。
104. 陳貞如(2017)。從「人類安全」角度看地中海難民船船難與《聯合國海洋法公約》之適用。國際法與國內法的一元論——陳荔彤教授六秩晉五華誕祝壽論文及（上）
105. 楊崇森(2014).遨遊美國法 I：美國法之源流與民刑法之運作.
106. 楊崇森(2015).遨遊美國法 III：美國法制的實務與運作.
107. 臺灣國家婦女館，[ 新聞 / 資訊分享 ] 國軍女官兵人數突破 2 萬大關，2018 年 4 月 10 日，http://www.taiwanwomencenter.org.tw/zh-tw/NewsMgt/News/Content/13/NEWS189 （最後點閱日期：2020 年 06 月01 日）。