美髮業店長正向領導與組織績效關係之研究

A Study on the Relation between Positive Leadership and Organizational Performance of Hair Salon Managers

10.6346/NPUST202000183

余思樺

正向領導 ； 組織績效 ； 心理資本 ； 幸福感 ； positive leadership ； organizational performance ； psychological capital ； self-contentment

屏東科技大學技職教育研究所學位論文

2020年

碩士

羅希哲

繁體中文

本研究探討店長正向領導、設計師心理資本、幸福感與組織績效之關係，以問卷調查法，針對某間美髮連鎖企業的美髮設計師作為施測對象，本調查問卷共寄出280份，回收250份，扣除無效問卷30份，共得有效問卷220份。施測工具為「美髮業店長正向領導、設計師心理資本、幸福感之研究調查問卷」，有效樣本資料以描述性統計、單一樣本t檢定、獨立樣本t檢定、單因子變異數分析、Pearson積差相關及多元線性回歸等加以分析。 本研究獲得以下結論： 一、 店長正向領導之表現屬中上程度，其中以正向氛圍感受為最高 二、 設計師心理資本之表現屬中上程度，其中以自我效能、樂觀感受為最高 三、 設計師幸福感之表現屬中上程度，其中以正向情緒感受為最高 四、 組織績效之表現，其中以南部門市為最高 五、 30歲以下、專科、3個月~1年以內之設計師，在店長正向領導上普遍有較高的知覺 六、 男性、41~50歲以上、專科、3個月~1年以內之設計師，在設計師心理資本上普遍有較高的知覺 七、 男性、41~50歲以上、專科、3個月~1年以內之設計師，在設計師幸福感上普遍有較高的知覺 八、 店長正向領導、設計師心理資本、幸福感與組織績效彼此呈現正相關 九、 店長正向領導是影響組織績效的重要因素 十、 設計師心理資本與幸福感在店長正向領導與組織績效之間無中介效果 最後根據研究結果提供具體建議，供企業界參考之用。

The main objective of this study is to discover the relationship among the positive leadership of hair salon manager, psychological capital and self-contentment of hair stylist and organizational performance. Questionnaire survey is adopted as the research method, and the hair stylists of a certain beauty salon chain as the subjects in this study. In total, 280 questionnaires are distributed, and with 250 questionnaires collected. Of which, 30 questionnaires are invalid questionnaires, producing in total 220 valid questionnaires. The research tool is: “Questionnaire about the positive leadership of hair salon manager, psychological capital and self-contentment of hair stylist.” The survey data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, one sample t-test, independent sample t-test, one way ANOVA, Pearson product-moment correlation, and multiple regression analysis. The major findings were as follows: 1. The hair salon manager’s positive leadership is on the upper middle level, and the positive atmosphere is perceived the most. 2. The hair stylist’s psychological capital is on the upper middle level, and the self-efficacy and the optimism are perceived the most. 3. The hair stylist’s self-contentment is on the upper middle level, with positive emotions perceived the most. 4. In terms of organizational performance, stores in the south of Taiwan are the highest. 5. Hair stylists aged under 30, graduated from the junior college, with 3 months to a year’s experience, have a higher perception of positive leadership of manager. 6. Hair stylists, male, aged between 41-50, graduated from junior college, with 3 months to a year’s of experience, have a higher perception of psychological capital of hair stylist. 7. Hair stylists, male, aged between 41-50, graduated from junior college, with 3 months to a year’s experience, have a higher perception of self-contentment of hair stylist. 8. There is positive correlation among positive leadership of manager, psychological capital of hair stylist, self-contentment and organizational performance. 9. The positive leadership of manager is the key to the organizational performance. 10. There is no mediating effect of psychological capital of hair stylist and self-contentment to the positive leadership of manager and the organizational performance. Based on the final results of research, concrete suggestions are offered to serve as reference for relevant enterprises and business circles.

1. 洪瑞斌(2013)。職業倦怠研究在台灣之回顧與前瞻。人力資源管理學報，13(3)，107-140。
   連結：
2. Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276-302.
   連結：
3. 參考文獻
4. 壹、 中文部分
5. 仲秀蓮(2011)。臺灣地區國民小學校長正向領導、學校文化對學校創新經管效能影響之研究(未出版之博士論文)。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
6. 吳建新(2010)。組織獎酬制度與工作滿意度、組織公民行為及組織績效關聯性之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。中華大學，新竹市。
7. 吳經熊(1983)。內在悅樂之泉源。台北：東大。
8. 呂豐足(1996)。老人服務機構的績效評估及影響因素探討(未出版之碩士論文)。國立中正大學，嘉義縣。
9. 李佳生(2007)。企業財務績效之分析與評比—以台灣地區最佳營運 績效50強為例(未出版之碩士論文)。正修科技大學，高雄市。
10. 李勇緻(2012)。新北市國小校長正向領導與學校效能之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
11. 李建德(2012)。臺北市市國小行政人員自我管理與正向領導之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
12. 李新民(2009)。幼兒教師的心理資本及其與工作表現的潛在關聯。幼兒保育學刊，7，1-24。
13. 沈進成、陳紫玲、林惠敏(2010)。觀光旅館業組織文化對組織績效影響關係之研究—以台灣高雄地區為例。中華管理評論國際學報，13(1)，1-21。
14. 周良基(2013)。國民小學校長正向領導和學業樂觀關係之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立政治大學，臺北市。
15. 林士民(1999)。訓練移轉配合人力資源政策與實務對組織績效影響之實證研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立中山大學，高雄市。
16. 林文聰(2004)。國中學生之家庭功能、學校適應與幸福感之相關研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立彰化師範大學。彰化市。
17. 林志哲、葉玉珠(2011)。大學生感恩量表之發展。測驗學刊，58，147-178。
18. 林宗鴻(譯)(1997)。人格心理學(原作者：Burger, J. M.)。臺北市：揚智。
19. 林忠緯(2005)。企業財務績效之影響因素探討—行銷觀點(未出版之碩士論文)。國立中央大學，桃園市。
20. 林敏(2012)。心理資本與主觀幸福感之關聯性-以人力資本、社會資本為干擾變項(未出版之碩士論文)。國防大學管理學院，桃園市。
21. 林凱莉(2013)。國民小學校長正向領導、教師組織公民行為與學校組織創新關係之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立新教育大學，新竹市。
22. 林新發(2010)。正向領導的意涵與實施策略。國民教育。51(1)，1-5。
23. 林新發(2011a)。再論學校校長正向領導模式之建構。國民教育，52(2)，1-12。
24. 邱怡和（1998）。情境領導理論適用性之研究—以高屏地區國民小學為例(未出版之碩士論文)。國立屏東師範學院，屏東縣。
25. 施建彬、陸洛(譯)(1997)。幸福心理學(原作者：Argyle, M.)。臺北市：巨流。
26. 洪佳新(2002)。社會福利組織績效衡量之探討-以某基金會為例(未出版之碩士論文)。國立政治大學，台北市。
27. 洪塾優(2011)。工作特性、工作滿意與工作績效(未出版之碩士論文)。長榮大學，台南市。
28. 韋政通(1986)。中國的智慧。台北：水牛。
29. 徐佳銘(1993)。多國籍企業之特徵與績效評估方式關係之研究：臺灣地區之實證(未出版之碩士論文)。文化大學，台北市。
30. 徐富珍(1998)。社會比較的效果:對個人情感、認知、及行為之影響研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立政治大學，台北市。
31. 張佳芬(2013)。桃園縣國民小學校長正向領導與學校組織衝突關係之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立政治大學，台北市。
32. 張苙雲 (1986)。組織社會學。台北市：三民。
33. 莊瑞琦(2003)。主管領導型態員工人格特質與組織績效相關性之研究─以嘉義市政府為例(未出版之碩士論文)。國立中正大學，嘉義縣。
34. 陳密桃、陳玲婉(2006)。國小學童母親的人格特質與親職壓力、幸福感之相關研究。高雄大學報，20，1-20。
35. 陸洛(1997)。中國人幸福感之內涵、測量及相關因素探討。國家科學委員會研究彙刊：人文與社會科學，8(1)，115-137。
36. 曾文志(2010)。走過正向心理學的第一個十年。師友月刊，513，62-66。
37. 楊宜音、張志學、彭泗清(譯)(1997)。性格與社會心理測量總覽(上)(原作者：Robinson J. P., Shaver P. R. & Wrightsman L. S.)。臺北市：遠流。
38. 楊國樞(1980)。生活素質的心理學觀。中華心理學刊，22(2)，11-24。
39. 溫金豐(2007)。組織理論與管理。臺北市：學貫。
40. 詹雨臻、葉玉珠、彭月茵、葉碧玲(2009)。青少年復原力量表之發展。測驗學刊，56(4)，491-518。
41. 榮泰生(2011)。企業概論。臺北市：五南文化。
42. 劉玉玲(2011)。組織行為。臺北市：新文京開發。
43. 劉仲成(2005)。國民小學校長教學視導、學校專業發展與組織績效之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立台北師範學院，台北市。
44. 劉仲瑛(2012)。國中校長正向領導、學校文化與教師專業學習社群關係之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立新竹教育大學，新竹市。
45. 蔡青墉(2000)。醫務工作社會者對績效指標重要性看法之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。高雄醫學大學，高雄市。
46. 鄭彩鳳(2004)。教育領導研究的現況與發展趨勢-從研究典範探析。教育研究月刊，119，139-149。
47. 蕭惠文(2008)。高雄市國民小學教師工作壓力、因應策略與幸福感之研究(未出版之碩士論文)。國立屏東教育大學，屏東市。
48. 錢憲民(1996)。快樂的哲學：中國人生哲學史。臺北市：紅葉文化。
49. 謝傳崇(2010)。國際卓越的校長領導︰學習關鍵的領導行為。教育研究月刊，191，28-38。
50. 謝傳崇(2011)。校長正向領導激發學校超越表現。師友月刊，529，51-55。
51. 謝傳崇(2011a)。校長正向領導對教師教學影響之研究。教育資料與研究雙月刊，101，58-82。
52. 謝傳崇(2012a)。校長正向領導：理念、研究與實踐。臺北市：高等教育。
53. 謝傳崇(譯)(2011)。正向領導(原作者：Kim Cameron)。臺北市：巨流。
54. 謝傳崇(譯)(2015)。正向領導力(Practicing Positive Leadership) (原作者：Kim Cameron)。高雄市：巨流。
55. 謝傳崇譯、林新發校閱(2011a)。正向領導(Positive Leadership) (原作者：Kim Cameron)。臺北市：巨流。
56. 鍾雲英(2016)。高中校長正向領導指標建構與實徵分析(未出版之博士論文)。國立臺北教育大學，臺北市。
57. 貳、西文部分
58. American Psychological Association. (2002.10.2). The road to resilience. Retrieved from http://www. apa.org.
59. Argyris, C. (1999). On Organizational Learning. Malden, MA: Blackwell, p.305.
60. Aspinwall, L. G. (1998). Rethinking the role of positive affect in self-regulation. Motivation and Emotion, 22(1), 1-32.
61. Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., & Jensen, S. M. (2009). Psychological capital: A positive resource for combating employee stress and turnover. Human Resource Management, 48, 677-693.
62. Axtell, C. M., Holman, D. J., Unsworth, K. L., Wall, T. D., Waterson, P. E., & Harrington, E. (2000). Shopfloor innovation: Facilitating the suggestion and implementation of ideas. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 265-285.
63. Baas, M., De Dreu CKW, Nijstad B.A. (2008). A meta-analysis of 25 years of mood-creativity research: Hedonic tone, activation, or regulatory focus? Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 779-806.
64. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
65. Bandura, A. (1988). Self-regulation of motivation and action through goal systems, In V. Hamilton, G.H. Bower and N.H. Frijda (eds.), Cognitive Perspectives on Emotion and Motivation. New York: Springer, 37-61.
66. Bandura, A. (1996). Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
67. Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17(4), 319-325.
68. Beach, S. R. H., & Tesser, A. (1995). Self-esteem and the extended self-evaluation maintenance model. In H. M. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem , pp. 145-170. New York: Plenum.
69. Butler, J. P. (2011). Positive leadership in the military：An exploratory study. Available from ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis database. (UMI No. 3478081)
70. Cameron, K. & Spreitzer, G. (2011). The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship. New York, NY: Oxford University.
71. Cameron, K. S. (2008). Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance. San Francisco,CA: Berrett-Koehler.
72. Cameron, K. S. (2009). Positive psychology leaders series. Retrieved from http://www. ippanetwork.org.
73. Cameron, K. S. (2012). Positive leadership: Strategies for Extraordinary Performance (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
74. Cameron, K. S., Bright, D., & Caza, A. (2004). Exploring the relationships between organizational virtuousness and performance. American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 766-790.
75. Campbell, A. (1976). Subjective measures of well-being. American psychologist, 31 , 117-124.
76. Cantor, N. & Sanderson, C. A. (1999). Life task participation and well-being: The importance of taking part in daily life. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology . New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
77. Cascio, W. F. (2006). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
78. Coutu, D. L. (2002). How resilience works. Harvard Business Review, 80(5), 46-55.
79. Culbertson, S. S., Fullagar, C. J., & Mills, M. J. (2010). Feeling good and doing great: The relationship between psychological capital and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(4), 421-433.
80. Delaney, J.M., & Huseild, M. A. (1996). The impact of human resource management practices on perceptions of organizational performance. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 949-969.
81. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34-43.
82. Diener, E.(1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542-575.
83. Diener, E., Smith, H., & Fujita, F. (1995). The personality structure of affect. Journal of personality and social psychology, 69(1), 130-141.
84. Dutton, J. E. ＆ Ragins, B. R.(2007). Exploring positive relationships at work. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum
85. Dyer, L., & Reeves, T. (1995). HR strategies and firm performance：What do we know and where do we need to go? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 6(3), 656-670.
86. Emmons, R. A., & Shelton, C. M. (2002). Gratitude and the science of positive psychology. In C. R. Snyder & J. L. Shane (Eds.), Handbook of positive Psychology (pp. 4459-4471). New York, NY: Oxford.
87. Ford, J.D., Schellenberg, D.A.(1982). Conceptual issue of linkage in the assessment of organizational performance. Academy of Management Review, 7(1), 49-58.
88. Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., Luthans, F., May, D. R., & Walumbwa, F. (2005). Can you see the real me? A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343-372.
89. George, B. (2003). Authentic leadership: Rediscovering the secrets to creating lasting value. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
90. Gillham, J. (2000). The science of optimism and hope. Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation.
91. Gordon, J. (2008). The case for positive energy. Retrieved from： http://www.leader-values.com/Content/detail.asp?ContentDetailID=1207
92. Hatten, K. J. & Hatten, M. L. (1987). Strategic Group, Asymmetrical Mobility Barrier and Contestability, Strategic Management Journal, 8, 687-707.
93. Hendry, C., Bradley, P. & Perkins, S. (1997). Missed a Motivator, People Management, 11, 20-25.
94. Hon, A. H. (2012). Shaping environments conductive to creativity: The role of intrinsic motivation. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 53, 53-64.
95. Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D. (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader–follower outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 373-394.
96. Jean Lipman-Blumen (1996). The Connective Edge: Leading in an Interdependent World.
97. Kassem (1987). Leadership and Performance: A Longitudinal Investigation, Leadership Quarterly, 4(1), 81-102.
98. Keely, J. F. (1984). Optimizing pumping strategies for contaminant studies and remedial actions. Ground Water Monitoring Review, 4(3), 63-74.
99. Kelloway, E. K., Weigand, H., McKee, M. C., &; Das, H. (2013). Positive leadership and employee well-being. Journal of Leadership &; Organizational Studies, 20(1), 107-117.
100. Kim Cameron (2008). Positive Leadership: Strategies for Extraordinary Performance. New York：Ingram Pub Services.
101. Kim, D. H. (1993). The link between individual and organizational learning, Sloan Management Review, 35(1), 37-50.
102. Kirkman, B. L., & Rosen, B. (1999). Beyond self-management: Antecedents and consequences of team empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 58-74.
103. Ladd, K. (2014). Positive leadership principles for women. Eugene, OR: Harvest House.
104. Lai, J.C.L. (1994). Differential predictive power of the positively versus negatively worded items of the life orientation test, Psychological Reports, 75(3), 1507-1515.
105. Lang, D. & Wittig-Berman, U. (2000). “Managing work-related learning for employee and organizational growth,” SAM Advanced Management Journal, 65(4), 37-43.
106. Lee, H. & Choi, B. (2003). Knowledge Management Enablers, Processes and Organizational Performance：An Integrative View and Empirical Examination. Journal of Management information System, 20(1), 179-228.
107. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance, NJ: Prentice Hall.
108. Lu, L. (1995). The relationship between subjective well-being and psychosocial variables in Taiwan. The journal of social psychology, 135(3), 351-357.
109. Lu, L. (1999). Personal or environmental causes of happiness: A longitudinal analysis. The journal of social psychology. 139(1), 79-90.
110. Lu, L., & Shih, J. B. (1997a). Sources of happiness: A qualitative approach. The Journal of Social Psychology , 132(2), 181-187.
111. Lu, L., & Shih, J. B. (1997b). Personality and happiness: Is mental health a mediator? Personality and Individual Differences, 22(2), 249-256.
112. Lu, L., Robin, G., Kao, S. F., Weng, T. H., Hu, C. H., Chern, J. G., Huang, S. W., & Shih, J. B. (2001). Two ways to achieve happiness: When the East meets the West. Personality and individual differences, 30, 1161-1174.
113. Luthans, F. (2002a). The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 695-706.
114. Luthans, F. (2002b). Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths. Academy of Management Executive, 16, 57-72.
115. Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage. Organizational Dynamics, 33, 143-160.
116. Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541-572.
117. Luthans, F., Luthans, K. W., & Luthans, B. C. (2004). Positive psychology capital: Beyond human and social capital. Business Horizon, 47(1), 45-50.
118. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Investing and developing positive organizational behavior. Positive Organizational Behavior, 1, 9-24.
119. Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others? The role of cognitive and motivational process in well-being. American psychologist, 56(3), 239-249.
120. Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). The secret of happiness. London, England: Penguin Books.
121. Madu, C. N., Kuei, C. H., & Jaccob, R. A. (1996). An empirical assessment of the influence of quality dimension on organizational performance. Internal Journal of Production Research, 34(7), 1943-1962.
122. Masten, A. S., & Reed, M. G. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology: 74-88. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
123. Masten, A. S., & Reed, M.G. J. (2005). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74-88). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
124. McCann, J. (2004). “Organizational effectiveness: changing concepts for changing environments,” Human Resource Planning, 27, 42-50.
125. Michel, J. E. (2015). The art of positive leadership, (pp. 39-41). IN：WestBow Press.
126. Oishi, S., & Diener, Ed. (2001). Goals, culture, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 27(12), 1674-1682.
127. Oishi, S., Diener, E., Suh, E., & Lucas, R. E. (1999). Value as a moderator in subjective well-being. Journal of personality, 67(1), 157-184.
128. Olsson, C. A., Bond, L. Burns, J. M., Vella-Brodrick, D. A., & Sawyer, S. M. (2003). Adolescent resilience: A concept analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 26(1), 1-11.
129. Ostroff, C., & Schmitt, N. (1933). Configurations of organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Academy of Management Journal, 36(6), 1345-1361.
130. Panksepp, J. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, psychostimulants, and intolerance of childhood playfulness: A tragedy in the making? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7, 91-98.
131. Peterson, C. (2000). The future of optimism. American Psychologist, 55: 44-55.
132. Pickle, H., & Friedlander, F. (1967). Seven societal criteria of organizational success. Personnel Psychology, 20, 165-178.
133. Popper, M. & Lipshitz, R. (1998). Organizational learning mechanisms: a structural and cultural approach to organizational learning, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 34, 161-179.
134. Resnick, L. (1997). Evil or ill? Justifying the insanity defense. London, England: 175 Routledge.
135. Richard, J.P., Devinney, T.M., Yip, G.S., Johnson, G.(2009). Measuring organizational performance: towards methodological best practice. Journal of Management, 35(3), 718-804.
136. Robbins, S. P., & Coulter, M. (2002). Management, Prentice Hall Inc.
137. Roberts, R. C. (2004). The blessings of gratitude: A conceptual analysis. In R. A. Emmons & M. E. McCullough (Eds.), The psychology of gratitude (pp. 58-78). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
138. Rodsuttl, M. C., & Swierczek, F. W. (2002). Leadership and organization effectiveness in multinational enterprises in Southeast Asia. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 23(5), 250-259.
139. Ruekert, R. W., Walker, O. C., & Roering, K. J. (1985). The organization of marketing activities: A contingency theory of structure and performance. Journal of Marketing, 49, 13-25.
140. Salovey, P., Rothman, A. J., Detweiler, J. B., & Steward, W. T. (2000). Emotional states and physical health. American Psychologist, 55, 110-121.
141. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247.
142. Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (2001). Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being. In Chang, E. (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory~ research, and practice (pp. 189-216). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
143. Scheier, M.F. and C.S. Carver (1985). “Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and consequences of generalized outcome expectancies,” Health Psychology, 4(3), 219-247.
144. Scheier, M.F., C.S. Carver and M.W. Bridges (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the life orientation test, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063-1078.
145. Schneider, B (1991). Organizational climate and culture. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
146. Schweizer, K. and W. Koch (2001). The assessment of components of optimism by POSO-E, Personality and Individual Differences, 31(4), 563-574.
147. Scott, W. R. (1992). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open system. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall.
148. Seaman, A. (2009). What is positive leadership? Retrieved from http:// www.positiveleadership.com/
149. Seligman, M. E. P, &; Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. Americam Psychologist, 55, 5-14.
150. Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
151. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York, NY: Free Press.
152. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp.3-12). New York, NY: Oxford Press.
153. Seligman, M. E. P. c Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: an introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14.
154. Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday, 12.
155. Siu, O. L. (2003). Job stress and job performance among employees in Hong Kong: The role of Chinese work values and organizational commitment. International Journal of Psychology, 38(6), 337-347.
156. Smith, Ken G., Grimm, & Curtis M. (1987). Gambit and response: A theory of competitive action and response, Annual meeting of the Academy of Management, New Orlean.
157. Snow, C.C., Hrebiniak, L.G.(1980). Strategy, distinctive competence, and organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25(2), 317-336.
158. Snyder, C. R. (1995). Conceptualizing, measuring, and nurturing hope. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 355-360.
159. Snyder, C. R. (1997). Role of hope in academic and sport achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1257-1267.
160. Snyder, C. R. (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
161. Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., et al. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570-585.
162. Suh, E. M. (2000). Self, the hyphen between culture and subjective well-being. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective well-being. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
163. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkwowitz (Ed.) Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181-227). New York: Academic press.
164. Tesser, A. (1991). Emotion in social comparison and reflection processes. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 117-148). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
165. Tierney, P., & Farmer, S. M. (2011). Creative self-efficacy development and creative performance over time. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 277-293.
166. Tiger, L. (1979). Optimism: The biology of hope. New York: Simon and Schuster.
167. Torres, R. T., Preskill, H. & Piontek, M. E. (1996). Evaluation Strategies for Communicating and Reporting: Enhancing Learning in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 30.
168. Tsang, J.-A. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behaviour: An experimental test of gratitude. Cognition & Emotion, 20(1), 138-148.
169. Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 320-333.
170. Tusai, K., & Dyer, J. (2004). Resilience: A historical review of the construct. Holistic Nursing Practice, 18(1), 3-8.
171. Venkatrman, N., & Ramanujam, V. (1986). Measurement of Business Performance on Strategy Research： A Comparison of Approaches. Academy of management Review, 11(4), 801-814.
172. Walker, L. J., & Pitts, R. C. (1998). Naturalistic conceptions of moral maturity. Developmental Psychology, 34, 403-419.
173. Walton, E. J., & Dawson, S. (2001). Managers' perceptions of criteria of organizational effectiveness. Journal of Management Studies, 38(2), 173-199.
174. Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., Linley, P. A., & Joseph, S. (2008). A social-cognitive model of trait and state levels of gratitude. Emotion, 8(2), 81-290.
175. Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2013). Positive leadership: Meaning and application across cultures. Organizational Dynamics, 42(3), 198-208.