英文摘要
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During the Qing dynasty, the salt monopoly, along with the grain tribute system and management of the Yellow River, was considered the most important matter to both state finance and the livelihood of people and at the same time the most difficult to administer. Because of its importance, the Qing salt monopoly has received much attention from scholars. The sizable body of work on the Qing salt monopoly notwithstanding, we still do not have a clear understanding of how the system worked and what it meant to the history of late imperial China. The reason is twofold: first, the Qing salt monopoly was a system of bewildering complexities; second, despite the admirable efforts of many scholars, there are critical mistakes and oversights in the extant literature. This article attempts to sort out the ”rules of the game” of the Qing salt monopoly, which differed fundamentally from previous salt monopoly institutions, by examining the mechanisms and features that defined its operation and by identifying errors in existing studies. It begins with a brief introduction to the Qing salt zone system, followed by an analysis of its historical origins. This author argues that the emergence of the salt zone system was shaped mainly not by economic considerations but by the political circumstances during the period from the eighth to the eleventh centuries and that in consequence there were built-in elements that ran against economic reasoning. While the salt zone system had been in place since the Song dynasty, the combination of this system and the hereditary franchise system (gangfa) in the Qing led to a development unseen in previous dynasties, i.e., the territorialization of salt merchants' interests, which became a major cause of resistance to reform in later times. The greater part of the article explores the operational aspects of the monopoly, focusing on the differences in the modes of operation in different salt zones. The most significant among these differences was that between the monopoly of ”salt certificates” practiced in the Huainan sector of the Lianghuai salt zone and the monopoly of ”franchised salt territories” found in the majority of salt zones. This institutional divergence gave rise to further differences between Huainan and other salt zones, particularly in the medium of exchange-silver or copper cash-used in business transactions, and in salt merchants' relationships with the Qing government. The relationship between transport merchants and merchants engaged in salt production was another major difference with serious ramifications. Here we look at the example of the Hedong salt zone, whose unique arrangement had adverse effects on the transport merchants and salt trade there. In addition to explaining the power and wealth of Yangzhou salt merchants and the less enviable conditions in which Changlu and Hedong salt merchants found themselves, our analysis suggests that a sound understanding of how the Qing salt monopoly operated is imperative if we were to use aspects of the monopoly as the empirical basis for proposing views and theories on issues pertaining to state-society relations, the nature of Chinese society, the (under)development of capitalism in China, and the modernization of China.
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