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英文摘要
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China has a long tradition of storing ice in cellars from as early as the tenth century Be. This method was practiced by most governments since the Zhou dynasty (1050-211 B.C.). The Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties were no different. According to records, in 1644, the year that the Qing dynasty was founded, officially approved ice storage constituted 208,621 blocks. That number was supposedly copied from the Ming's system. In 1716 and 1728 ice storage was reduced, declining to as little as 90,000 blocks. After that, the amount of storage increased slowly. In 1743, it reached the 200,000-block level again. In 1821, the required amount was reduced by 20,000, and the annual amount of ice remained at 180,000 blocks until the end of the Qing dynasty. One ice block during the Qing dynasty weighed about 100 kilograms, which means annual ice storage ranged from 9,000 to 20,000 tons. After 1743, the government sold ice blocks to the public, and as many as 11,000 tons were sold annually. Ice blocks in Beijing collected during the winter by the Ming and Qing governments were mainly used to preserve the sacrificial offerings of the fourth to ninth months of the lunar calendar and for royal consumption. In addition, ice blocks were issued to officers during summer days. Ice water was also provided to officers at each day's meetings. As well, foreign emissaries were also given ice water during the Qing dynasty. During the last days of Emperor Kangxi, jailed prisoners were also given ice water to prevent heat stroke. In 1732, Emperor Yongzheng ordered ice water to be supplied to pedestrians at the nine gates of Beijing Inner City. This practice continued until the end of the Qing dynasty. Since the middle of the Qing dynasty, many wealthy elites adopted the practice of supplying ice water on the streets, a merciful act that made residents of Beijing less prone to heat stroke in summer. Without air conditioning, the heat of summer and autumn was unbearable, and people sought ways to cool their living quarters. The government issued ice blocks to officers in the fourth month of the year; as well, civilians could also buy ice blocks and place them in their homes. In Beijing during the Qing dynasty, it was common for upper-class families to place an ice bowl or box in the living room. Thanks to ice cellars, summer days became much less bothersom. This was a luxury unavailable to the southerners. Many people missed it when they left Beijing. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, seafood was brought into Beijing, kept fresh through the use of ice. Although the fish that reached Beijing were far from kicking, they were still alive and it was said that you could eat them raw. Besides using ice in transportation, fish and meat merchants in Beijing frequently stored unsold fish or meat in ice cellars. Restaurants and butchers were also known to store boxes of meat in ice cellars. They also stored small quantities of unsold meat in iceboxes and large quantities in ice cellars. Fruit dealers in Beijing, like their fish and meat counterparts, used ice cellars to preserve their products. Cellar owners usually accept fruit beginning in the seventh month. These stored fruits usually could be sold at a hefty profit margin in the autumn and winter. Their prices could be much higher than in season, but people at least had fresh fruit to eat all year round. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, street side ice sellers were usually selling ice water or iced brewed plum drinks. Boiling preserved plums and rose or cassia petals with rock sugar made the so-called brewed plum drink, which was chilled with ice. This extremely popular cold drink was the thirst buster of its day. The abundant ice storage of both public and private sectors in Beijing changed the lives of civilians and officers. Officers had ice water to drink at work. They also had home-delivered ice blocks issued by the Emperor. This unique benefit was unmatched in Western countries. As to daily food and drink, many benefited from the increased food safety that ice made possible. After 1732, people could have ice water at Beijing's nine gates and on the streets. This was important to public welfare and health. Since ice blocks were inexpensive, even ordinary people could have ice in the summer. This kind of social equality amazed British visitors. In the summer of 1793, John Barrow, the private secretary of British ambassador George Macartney, commented on the way Beijing people used ice: ＂The luxury of ice, in the neighborhood of the capital, is within the reach of the poorest peasant; and, although they drink their tea and other beverages warm, they prefer all kinds of fruit cooled on ice.＂ In a word, civilians in Beijing were leading a better life than those in Britain, at least in terms of access to ice.
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