德行領導：本土概念或普同現象？

Moral Leadership: An Indigenous Construct or a Universal Phenomenon?

10.6129/CJP.20141224

王安智(An-Chih Wang)

家長式領導 ； 道德領導 ； 德行領導 ； paternalistic leadership ； ethical leadership ； moral leadership

中華心理學刊

56卷2期（2014 / 06 / 01）

149 - 164

繁體中文

自鄭伯壎及其團隊（如Farh & Cheng, 2000）提出德行領導（moral leadership），做為具有華人特色的家長式領導重要向度之一後，此一強調個人德行修為的領導風格，便被視為是一項具有本土特色的領導概念。過去10年間，幾項重要的後續研究已初步釐清德行領導的豐富內涵，並驗證其與部屬效能的高度展現有關。但值此同時，西方領導學社群也開始以道德領導（ethical leadership）為題，探討領導者如何展現個人操守並進一步提倡合乎倫理規範的行為操守。當道德領導逐漸成為近十年來西方領導研究的「顯學」，並在文化分析中被認定為可一路追溯至古希臘時代對道德的崇尚時，有志於華人德行領導的研究者便不禁反思：德行領導究竟是華人特有的領導風格，還是在非華人情境下也普遍存在的現象？本文首先回顧德行領導與道德領導兩者在過去10年間的研究進展，再從文化根源分析、運作機制探討及行為展現對照3種角度，進一步比較兩者的異同。本文並試圖建立一項整合性的概念架構，用以指出德行領導在定義與概念化層次上，應普遍存在於各種文化場域之中；但其向度與內涵之展現，則是鑲嵌於文化之中的產物，在各文化場域中各自呈現不同的風貌。最後，本文在此一概念架構的基礎上，提出值得研究者繼續投入的未來研究方向。

Since Farh & Cheng (2000) proposed moral leadership as one of the dimensions of Chinese paternalistic leadership, it has been considered an indigenous leadership construct emerged from Confucian doctrine of self-cultivation. For the past ten years, several important follow-up studies have clarified the nature of it and evidenced its favorable effects on subordinate performance. As this leadership construct gradually developed, Western scholars also defined a similar term, ethical leadership, as a leader's normatively appropriate conduct and his or her promotion of such morality. When Western literature on leadership further traced ethical leadership to Aristotle's philosophy, researchers interested in Chinese moral leadership started to wonder whether moral leadership is truly an indigenous leadership construct that only exists in Chinese settings. To probe this question, I first review literature on moral leadership and that on ethical leadership separately, and then compare these two constructs from three perspectives: (1) cultural origins, (2) underlying mechanisms, and (3) behavioral demonstration. Accordingly, I propose a framework that integrates the two leadership constructs. I argue that at the definition and the conceptualization level, moral or ethical leadership is universal and can be observed across different cultural settings. However, its dimensions and explicit display are culture-specific; it consists of disparate sets of behavioral patterns in different contexts. Based on this newly proposed framework, I identify several fruitful future research directions.

1. 鄭伯壎、周麗芳、黃敏萍、樊景立、彭泗清(2003)。家長式領導的三元模式：中國大陸企業組織的證據。本土心理學研究，20，209-250。
   連結：
2. 鄭伯壎、周麗芳、樊景立(2000)。家長式領導量表：三元模式的建構與測量。本土心理學研究，14，3-64。
   連結：
3. 鄭伯壎、謝佩鴛、周麗芳(2002)。校長領導作風、上下關係品質及教師角色外行為：轉型式與家長式領導的效果。本土心理學研究，17，105-161。
   連結：
4. Aryee, S.,Chen, Z. X.,Sun, L. Y.,Debrah, Y. A.(2007).Antecedents and outcomes of abusive supervision: Test of a trickle-down model.Journal of Applied Psychology,92,191-201.
5. Bandura, A.(1977).Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
6. Bandura, A.(1986).Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
7. Bass, B. M.(1998).Transformational leadership: Industry, military and educational impact.Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
8. Bass, B. M.,Steidlmeier, P.(1999).Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior.The Leadership Quarterly,10,181-217.
9. Brown, M. E.,Treviño, L. K.(2006).Ethical leadership: A review and future directions.The Leadership Quarterly,17,595-616.
10. Brown, M. E.,Treviño, L. K.,Harrison, D. A.(2005).Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,97,117-134.
11. Burns, J. M.(1978).Leadership.New York:Harper and Row.
12. Chan, S. C. H.,Huang, X.,Snape, E.,Lam, C. K.(2013).The Janus face of paternalistic leaders: Authoritarianism, benevolence, subordinates' organization-based self-esteem, and performance.Journal of Organizational Behavior,34,108-128.
13. Chan, W. T.(1963).A source book in Chinese philosophy.Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press.
14. Chen, C. C.(Ed.),Lee, Y. T.(Ed.)(2008).Leadership and management in China: Philosophies, theories and practices.Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.
15. Cheng, B. S.,Chou, L. F.,Wu, T. Y.,Huang, M. P.,Farh, J. L.(2004).Paternalistic leadership and subordinate responses: Establishing a leadership model in Chinese organizations.Asian Journal of Social Psychology,7,89-117.
16. Elman, B. A.(2000).A cultural history of civil examinations in late imperial China.Berkeley, CA:University of California Press.
17. Ferrell, O. C.,Fraedrich, J.(1994).Business ethics: Ethical decision making and cases.Boston, MA:Houghton Mifflin.
18. Fu, P. P.,Tsui, A. S.,Liu, J.,Li, L.(2010).Pursuit of whose happiness? Executive leaders' transformational behaviors and personal values.Administrative Science Quarterly,55,222-254.
19. Goslin, D. A.(Ed.)(1969).Handbook of socialization theory and research.Chicago, IL:Rand-McNally.
20. Ho, D. Y. F.(1998).Interpersonal relationships and relationship dominance: An analysis based on methodological relationalism.Asian Journal of Social Psychology,1,1-16.
21. Ho, D. Y. F.(1995).Selfhood and identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Constructs with the West.Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour,25,115-139.
22. House, R. J.,Hanges, P. J.,Javidan, M.,Dorfman, P. W.,Gupta, V.(2004).Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies.Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.
23. Hsu, F. L. K.(1971).Psychological homeostasis and Jen: Conceptual tools for advancing psychological anthropology.American Anthropologist,73,23-44.
24. Jordan, J.,Brown, M. E.,Treviño, L. K.,Finkelstein, S.(2013).Someone to look up to: Executive-follower ethical reasoning and perceptions of ethical leadership.Journal of Management,39,660-683.
25. Kanungo, R. N.,Mendonca, M.(1996).Ethical dimensions of leadership.Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.
26. Kish-Gephart, J. J.,Harrison, D. A.,Treviño, L. K.(2010).Bad apples, bad cases, or bad barrels? Meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work.Journal of Applied Psychology,95,1-31.
27. Kouzes, J. M.,Posner, B. Z.(1993).Credibility: How leaders gain and lose it, why people demand it.San Francisco, CA:Jossey-Bass.
28. Li., J. T.(Ed.),Tsui, A. S.(Ed.),Weldon, E.(Ed.)(2000).Management and organizations in the Chinese context.London, UK:Macmillan.
29. Lo, W. W.(1987).An Introduction to the civil service of Sung China.Honolulu, HI:University of Hawaii Press.
30. Marsella, A. J.(Ed.),DeVos, G.(Ed.),Hsu, F. L. K.(Ed.)(1985).Culture and self: Asian and western perspectives.New York:Tavistock.
31. Mayer, D. M.,Kuenzi, M.,Greenbaum, R.,Bardes, M.,Salvador, R.(2009).How low does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle-down model.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,108,1-13.
32. Niu, C. P.,Wang, A. C.,Cheng, B. S.(2009).Effectiveness of a moral and benevolent leader: Probing the interactions of the dimensions of paternalistic leadership.Asian Journal of Social Psychology,12,32-39.
33. Pincoffs, E.(1971).Quandary ethics.Mind,80,552-571.
34. Posner, B. Z,Schmidt, W. H.(1992).Values and the American manager: An update updated.California Management Review,34,80-94.
35. Pye, L. W.(1985).Asian power and politics.Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
36. Pye, L. W.(1981).Dynamics of Chinese politics.Cambridge, MA:OG & H.
37. Redding, S. G.(1990).The spirit of Chinese capitalism.New York:Walter de Gruyter.
38. Resick, C. J.,Hanges, P. J.,Dickson, M. W.,Mitchelson, J. K.(2006).A cross-cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership.Journal of Business Ethics,63,345-359.
39. Sarros, J. C.,Cooper, B. K.(2006).Building character: A leadership essential.Journal of Business and Psychology,21,1-22.
40. Silin, R. H.(1976).Leadership and value: The organization of large-scale Taiwanese enterprises.Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.
41. Smith, R. J.(1994).China's cultural heritage: The Qing dynasty, 1664-1912.Boulder, CO:Westview Press.
42. Stocker, M.(1990).Plural and conflicting values.Oxford, MS:Oxford University Press.
43. Treviño, L. K.,Brown, M.,Hartman, L. P.(2003).A qualitative investigation of perceived executive ethical leadership: Perceptions from inside and outside the executive suite.Human Relations,55,5-37.
44. Treviño, L. K.,Hartman, L. P.,Brown, M.(2000).Moral person and moral manager: How executives develop a reputation for ethical leadership.California Management Review,42,128-142.
45. Twitchett, D. C.(1976).The birth of the Chinese meritocracy: Bureaucrats and examinations in Tang China.London, UK:China Society.
46. Walumbwa, F. O.,Avolio, B. J.,Gardner, W. L.,Wernsing, T. S.,Peterson, S. J.(2008).Authentic leadership: Development of a theory-based measure.Journal of Management,34,89-126.
47. Wang, A. C.,Cheng, B. S.(2010).When does benevolent leadership lead to creativity? The moderating role of creative role identity and job autonomy.Journal of Organizational Behavior,31,106-121.
48. Wang, A. C.,Chiang, T. J.,Cheng, B. S.(2011).Chinese leader moral character: Scale development and validation.2011 Annual Meeting of Academy of Management,San Antonio, TX:
49. Wang, A. C.,Chou, W. J.,Cheng, B. S.(2012)."Chinese" leader moral character? Measurement equivalence and the link to subordinate outcomes among China, Japan, Thailand, Mexico, and Belgium.2012 International Association for Chinese Management Research (IACMR) Biannual,Hong Kong, China:
50. Weaver, G. R.,Treviño, L. K.,Agle, B.(2005)."Somebody I look up to:" Ethical role models in organizations.Organizational Dynamics,34,313-330.
51. Westwood, R.(1997).Harmony and patriarchy: The cultural basis for "paternalistic headship" among the overseas Chinese.Organization Studies,18,445-480.
52. Whitley, R.(1992).Business systems in East Asia: Firms, markets, and societies.London, UK:Sage.
53. Wright, T. A.,Goodstein, J.(2007).Character is not "dead" in management research: A review of individual character and organizational-level virtue.Journal of Management,33,928-958.
54. 凌文輇(1991)。中國人的領導與行為。中國人•中國心―人格與社會篇，台北=Taipei:
55. 鄭伯壎編、姜定宇編(2006)。華人組織行為：議題、作法及出版。台北=Taipei:華泰=Hwatai。
56. 鄭伯壎(1991)。家族主義與領導行為。中國人•中國心―人格與社會篇，台北=Taipei:
57. 鄭伯壎(1995)。國科會專題研究報告國科會專題研究報告,台北=Taipei:行政院國家科學委員會=National Science Council。
58. 鄭伯壎(2007)。國科會專題研究報告國科會專題研究報告,台北=Taipei:行政院國家科學委員會=National Science Council。
59. 鄭伯壎(1996)。國科會專題研究報告國科會專題研究報告,台北=Taipei:行政院國家科學委員會=National Science Council。
60. 鄭伯壎、莊仲仁(1981)。基層軍事幹部有效領導行為之因素分析：領導績效、領導角色與領導行為之關係。中華心理學刊，23，97-106。
61. 鄭伯壎、黃敏萍、周麗芳(2002)。家長式領導及其效能：華人企業團隊的證據。香港華人心理學報，3，85-112。

1. 高安怡(2021)。德行領導雙面效應之回顧性研究。科技與人力教育季刊，8(1)，54-75。
2. 劉世慶,楊政學,常逸平,胡秀華(2023)。儒商倫理紀律與公司治理：兩個案例研究。管理學報，40(2)，107-133。
3. 嚴國晉,蔡佩容,費吳琛,李庭閣(2021)。家長式領導與部屬建言行為之關係：深層演出與表層演出之角色。人力資源管理學報，21(2)，75-99。
4. 游淑萍、陳銘薰(2015)。工作價值觀、家長式領導與組織公民行為影響之研究。商管科技季刊，16(4)，535-591。
5. 鄭伯壎、姜定宇、吳宗祐(2014)。專輯序言─「台灣的領導研究：創新與超越」。中華心理學刊，56(2)，135-147。