非營利組織產業化與社會閒散現象之行動研究

An Action Research of Commercialization and Social Loafing in the Non-profit Organization

10.30409/JPA.201509_(49).0002

陳秋政(José Chiu-C. Chen)；鄭展仰(Chen-Yang Cheng)

非營利組織 ； 社會閒散 ； 精實思考模式 ； 輔具中心 ； 基金會 ； non-profit organization ； social loafmg ； lean thinking ； the assistive technology resource center (ATRC) ； foundation

公共行政學報

49期（2015 / 09 / 01）

37 - 70

繁體中文

面對非營利組織產業化的趨勢，多數研究持續從倫理層面提出警語。但前述浪潮卻未因此停歇，反而是衍生日越多元的產業化挑戰。本文認為迴避實務發展需求，並不足以維繫非營利組織研究的貢獻。遂以「α基金會所屬輔具資源中心」為例，在參與共產業化輔導工作的過程，採取行動研究試圖為該組織解決其面臨的經營管理問題。參與過程觀察到該中心在邁向服務產業化的過程，遭受日益嚴重的社會閒散現象；也發現該中心在提供服務或製作產品的過程，經常受限於組織特性、社會閒散等因素，而難以在生產管理過程落實專案管理成效，回應市場競爭的邏輯與需求。因此本研究執行深度訪談及作業時間管理研究，思考如何在兼顧非營利組織運作特性、解決組織社會閒散現象的基礎上，導入「精實管理模式及手法」設計適用的專案管理制度，協助研究個案化解產業化帶來的新挑戰。更據此對非營利組織產業化，提出行動研究的反思與討論。

Faced with the trend of the commercialization of non-profit organizations, most studies repeatedly remind us of possible impacts through ethical warnings. But the movement of commercialization into the NPO sector shows no signs of stopping. Instead, the challenges of commercialization are becoming more diverse. This study argues that remaining ignorant of the necessity of practical puzzle-solving might undermine the existing contribution of NPO research. For the purpose of sharing our observations and implementing commitments for voluntary counseling service, ＂α assistive technology resource center＂ (α-ATRC) was taken as our action research case. During the period of our counseling service, the phenomenon of social loafing became continuously worse. Meanwhile, the daily operations toward commercialization at ＂α-ATRC＂ are limited by NPOs' characteristics, social loafing, etc. Hence, the efficacy of commercialization in our research case is not satisfying; also the capacity in response to market competition is not sufficient. Therefore, in-depth interviews and time-and-motion research were conducted during our counseling service. A lean thinking approach and its practices of ＂lean kanban system, SOP, value stream mapping＂ (VSM) were applied for the purpose of solving social loafing problems at ＂α-ATRC.＂ Base on collected data, useful suggestions were proposed, and the challenges of NPO commercialization were released. More reflections and discussions for the issue of NPO commercialization are provided in the conclusion.

1. 任恒毅、廖秀姬(2008)。精實生產價值溪流程改善方法之實證研究－以某汽車空調製造商為例。品質學報，15(5)，323-336。
   連結：
2. 李濟仲、廖主民(2012)。個體在團體工作時的動機提升效應。中華體育季刊，26(3)，329-336。
   連結：
3. 汪立筠、廖主民(2009)。以集體努力模式（CEM）探討社會懈怠現象。中華體育季刊，23(1)，73-79。
   連結：
4. 官有垣、陳錦棠、王仕圖(2014)。台灣的社會企業治理研究：2010年調查資料及四個個案分析。公共行政學報，47，1-33。
   連結：
5. 潘世尊(2011)。論行動研究論文審查上的一些問題。當代教育研究季刊，19(4)，41-83。
   連結：
6. 蔡維奇、紀乃文(2008)。團隊情感氛圍形成的前因、情境調節及個人層次後果變項之研究。組織與管理，1(1)，1-37。
   連結：
7. Moede, W. (1927). Die Richtlinien der Leistungs-psychologie (Guidelines of the psychology of performance). Industrielle Psychotechnik, 4, 193-209.
8. Adair, J. G.(1984).The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.Journal of Applied Psychology,69(2),334-345.
9. Albanese, R.,Van Fleet, D. D.(1985).Rational behavior in groups: The free-riding tendency.Academy of Management Review,10(2),244-255.
10. Argyris, C.(1983).Action science and intervention.The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,19(2),115-140.
11. Comer, D. R.(1995).A model of social loafing in real work groups.Human Relations,48(6),647-667.
12. Gabrenya, Jr. W. K.,Latané, B.,Wang, Y. E.(1983).Social loafing in cross-cultural perspective: Chinese on Taiwan.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,14(3),368-384.
13. Gelatt, J. P.(1992).Managing nonprofit organizations in the 21st century.Phoenix, AZ:Oryx Press.
14. George, J. M.(1992).Extrinsic and intrinsic origins of perceived social loafing in organizations.Academy of Management Journal,35(1),191-202.
15. Harkins, S. G.,Jackson, J. M.(1985).The role of evaluation in eliminating social loafing.The Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,11(4),457-465.
16. Harkins, S. G.,Petty, R. E.(1982).Effects of task difficulty and task uniqueness on social loafing.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,43(6),1214-1229.
17. Harkins, S.,Latané, B.,Williams, K.(1979).Social loafing.Psychology Today,13(5),104-110.
18. Hertel, G.,Keer, N. L.,Messé, L. A.(2000).Motivation gains in performance groups: Paradigmatic and theoretical development on the Köhler effect.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79(4),580-601.
19. Ingham, A. G.,Levinger, G.,Graves, J.,Peckham, V.(1974).The Ringelmann effect: Studies of group size and group performance.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,10(4),371-384.
20. Jackson, J. M.,Williams, K. D.(1985).Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,49(4),937-942.
21. Karau, S. J.,Williams, K. D.(1993).Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,65(4),681-706.
22. Karau, S. J.,Williams, K. D.(1995).Social loafing: Research findings, impications, and future directions.Current Directions in Psychological Science,4(5),134-140.
23. Kelley, H. H.,Grzelak, J.(1972).Conflict between individual and common interest in an N-person relationship.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,21(2),190-197.
24. Kerr, N. L.,Bruun, S. E.(1981).Ringelmann revisited: Alternative explanations for the social loafing effect.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,7(2),224-231.
25. Kerr, N. L.,Bruun, S. E.(1983).Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses: Free-rider effects.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,44(1),78-94.
26. Kerr, N. L.,Messé, L. A.,Seok, D. H.,Sambolec, E. J.,Lount, R. B., Jr.,Park, E. S.(2007).Psychological mechanisms underlying the Köhler motivation gain.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,33(6),828-841.
27. Kravitz, D. A.,Martin, B.(1986).Ringelmann rediscovered: The original article.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50(5),936-941.
28. Latané, B.,Williams, K.,Harkins, S.(1979).Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,37(6),822-832.
29. Levine, J. M.(Ed.),Hogg, M. A.(Ed.)(2010).Encyclopedia of group processes & Intergroup relations.Thousand Oaks, CA:SAGE Publications, Inc..
30. Lin, Y. H.,Chien, S. C.(2012).The relationship between children's ToM and their social loafing behavior.Fu Jen Journal of Human Ecology,18(2),27-43.
31. Liu, Y. C.,Chen, H. Y.,Liu, C. W.,Lin, C.,Chan, H. Y.(2010).A model to evaluate the effectiveness of collaborative online learning teams-self-disclosure and social exchange theory perspective.International Journal of Cyber Society and Education,3(2),117-132.
32. Lummus, R. R.,Vokurka, R. J.,Rodeghiero, B.(2006).Improving quality through value stream mapping: A case study of a physician's clinic.Total Quality Management & Business Excellence,17(8),1063-1075.
33. Maslach, C.(1978).The client role in staff burn-out.Journal of Social Issues,34(4),111-124.
34. Maslow, A. H.(1970).Motivation and Personality.New York:Harper & Row.
35. McDonald, T.,Van Aken, E. M.,Rentes, A.(2002).Utilizing simulation to enhance value-stream mapping: A manufacturing case application.International Journal of Logistics: Research and Applications,5(2),213-32.
36. Oster, S. M.(1995).Strategic management for nonprofit organizations: Theory and cases.New York:Oxford University Press.
37. Rajentbirakumar, D.,Mohanram, P. V.,Harikarthik, S. G.(2011).Process cycle efficiency improvement through lean: A case study.International Journal of Lean Thinking,2(1),46-58.
38. Salamon, L. M.(1995).Partners in public service: Government-nonprofit relations in the modern welfare state.Baltimore, Maryland:The Johns Hopkins University Press.
39. Schnake, M. E.(1991).Equity in effort: The "Sucker Effect" in co-acting groups.Journal of Management,17(1),41-55.
40. Shepperd, J. A.(1993).Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis.Psychological Bulletin,113(1),67-81.
41. Shepperd, J. A.,Taylor, K. M.(1999).Social loafing and expectancy-value theory.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,25(9),1147-1158.
42. Steiner, I. D.(1966).Models for inferring relationships between group size and potential productivity.Behavioral Science,11(4),273-283.
43. Steiner, I. D.(1972).Group Process and Productivity.New York:Academic Press.
44. Ting, H.,Wallsten, T. S.(2008).Learning to communicate risk information in groups.Judgment and Decision Making,3(8),659-666.
45. Weisbrod, B. A.(Ed.)(2000).To profit or not to profit: The commercial transformation of the nonprofit sector.New York:Cambridge University Press.
46. Williams, K. D.,Karau, S. J.(1991).Social loafing and social compensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,61(4),570-581.
47. Womack, J. P.,Jones, D. T.,Roos, D.(1990).The machine thatchanged the world.New York:Free Press.
48. Young, D. R.(2001).Organizational identity in nonprofit organizations: Strategic and structural implications.Nonprofit Management and Leadership,12(2),139-157.
49. 大野耐一(2006)。大野耐一的現場管理。北京:機械工業出版社。
50. 江明修編(2002)。非營利管理。台北:智勝文化。
51. 江明修編、Weisbrod, Burton A.(2004)。非營利組織產業。台北:智勝出版社。
52. 孫煒(2004)。非營利組織人力資源策略管理之體系建構。中國行政評論，13(3)，119-138。
53. 張立敏、張立為(2007)。運動領域中的印象管理。武漢體育學院學報，41(10)，47-52。
54. 張志成、黃素芬(2004)。不同團隊大小在集體效能、社會懈怠、團隊目標過程與團隊表現的差異比較。大專體育學術專刊，93年度，171-181。
55. 張國義、陳皎眉(1995)。不同激勵策略對社會閒散之影響。中華心理學刊，37(1)，71-81。
56. 許准之、高明瑞、趙平宜(2011)。非營利組織企業化之困難與挑戰。創業管理研究，6(1)，55-80。
57. 陳定銘(2006)。非營利組織產業化之析探：以喜憨兒基金會為例。第三部門學刊，5，69-104。
58. 陳金貴(2002)。非營利組織社會企業化經營探討。新世紀智庫論壇，19，39-51。
59. 陳書梅(2002)。知識管理與圖書館組織文化。中國圖書館學會會報，69，66-81。
60. 陳義勝(1996)。國科會專題研究計畫國科會專題研究計畫,國科會。
61. 黃建銘(2004)。組織內社會性偷懶現象之研究。中華行政學報，1，205-224。
62. 劉曉劍(2011)。試論協同教學的團隊建設。大學教育科學，125，41-45。
63. 潘淑滿(2003)。質性研究：理論與應用。臺北:心理出版社。
64. 鄭美芳(1988)。碩士論文(碩士論文)。台北，國立政治大學心理學研究所。
65. 蕭新煌編、江明修編、官有垣編(2006)。基金會在臺灣。台北:巨流圖書公司。
66. 蕭新煌編、官有垣編、陸宛蘋編(2009)。非營利部門：組織與運作。臺北:巨流圖書公司。
67. 謝臥龍編(2004)。質性研究。台北:心理出版社。

1. 謝秉蓉,陳建志,莊欽琪(2021)。縣市輔具資源中心成員組織信任與服務創新關係之研究－以知識分享為中介變項。東吳社會工作學報，41，35-67。
2. (2023)。非營利組織轉型社會企業關鍵因素之初探：工作整合型社會企業為例。空大行政學報，37，27-56。